Internet Privacy: Government Should Not Regulate Encryption or Cryptogr

Internet concealment Government Should Not Regulate Encryption or CryptographyPrivacy rights have been an important issue through out time, and it has been increasing in importance as we have moved into the electronic/information age. Keeping that privacy had become a growing concern for many businesses and consumers. With all the information being sent across the web, people are very concerned approximately their personal information falling into the wrong hands. One way to help protect your privacy on the net is by using an encoding program. level off though they are not completely unbreakable, an encryption program is one of the best ways to protect against outside intrusions. Despite this fact, the government wants too localise legislation on encryption services that can be a potential danger to both the development of encryption systems and to your rights. According to the ACLU, the Clinton Administration select the Clipper Chip plan in 1993. This proposal would require every user of encryption to give the government their decryption keys. This, essentially, would give the government bighearted access to all private and non-private communications, both stored and real-time. This is the equivalent of the government requiring all homebuilders to embed microphones in the walls of homes and apartments. ( ACLU White Paper Big Brother in the Wires Wiretapping in the Digital Age ). in that location was also a proposal for the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA). This FBI-based law would require the telecommunications industry to build intensify digital wiretapping capabilities into the Nations telephone system. (EFF Press Release & Joint EFF/ACLU/EPIC Statement on ACP) There has been strong opposition to this plan. Many peopl... ...o force encryption users to hand over their decryption keys. It seems as though the government is really more focused on spying on citizens than it is about fighting crime. There does not appear to be any sufficient proof to justify their claim to need decryption keys to fight crime and terrorism (especially terrorism). I deliberate that if the government wants to use electronic surveillance on encrypted information, for a justifiable reason, then they should work in correspondence with encryption system users. I feeling that privacy is a very important right of all people and people should be able to try and protect it to the best of their ability, as keen-sighted as no one else gets hurt in the process. Peoples rights to privacy should not be taken so lightly by our government. I would think that top Clinton, of all people, would understand the want, and need, for privacy.

The Pearl by John Stienbeck Movie versus Novel Essay -- essays researc

In the novel The Pearl the author, John Steinbeck, writes about a humanness named Kino who finds a Great Pearl and how greed consumes him and the tribe around him with murderous feelings towards the beholder of the pearl. A movie was later adapted from the book in 1947 that exhibited many similar characteristics as the book. How ever, although the book and the movie are very much a like they are also quite different.In the novel, the main character, Kino, goes out to find a pearl in hopes of getting money to pay the doctor to treat Coyotito, his son, who has been bitten by a scorpion. Kino discovers the biggest pearl anyone has ever seen, and believes the pearl will bring nothing but good for him and his family. The pearl does change the lives of Kino, his wife Juana, and Coyotito, but not in the way he had hoped. When the people in La Paz find out about Kinos pearl, he is visited by a greedy priest and doctor, the deceitful pearl buyers label to scam him into selling it to them for less than its worth, and the pearl was almost stolen twice. Kino kills the second thief in self-defense...

Hummingbirds :: Biology Animals Birds

Hummingbirds are stunning creatures, besides their future can be bright only if they have plenty of flowers for food and trees for shelter. Unfortunately, human population grows too fast for the hummingbirds habitats. Once a person knows more about these attractive animals, they will find the forests a richer place to protect. Hummingbirds are the smallest and most brilliantly colored birds. Their aerial maneuvers fascinate all.Hummingbirds are promiscuous animals, and families generally consist of a single mother and two baby chicks. It all starts during mating season, when a male tries to attract a female. He may hover in look of her showing off his gorgeous wings, tail, beak and plumage. If she isn?t interested she just flies away. If he wins her affection, they will sleep together one night. In the break of day they?ll fly away in separate directions and probably never meet again.Males obviously take no part in raising the young. Two fresh pea-sized eggs are generally laid, several age apart. The hummingbird mother works very hard to care for her young. The two chicks are born naked, blind, and smaller than bumblebees, but they grow quickly. By the time they are three to four days old, their eyes open, and the mother continues feeding them. The duration of nesting period is fourteen to thirty-one days depending on the food available and the strengths of the chicks and the mother. When they are ready for fledging, the chicks may be 4.5 grams while their exhausted mother is down to 2.5 grams after the feat of raising her young.after a month or so, the hummingbirds leave their nest and master flying quickly and easily. They are continued to be fed because they end up blow a lot of time mistaking hats, signs, and other bright objects for flowers.The average life span of a hummer is probably three to five years. The designate has been twelve years. There are about three-hundred and twenty different species, and the Bee Hummingbird is the smallest. 8 cm is not only half of the space of my pen, but also the length of the largest hummingbird, the Giant Hummingbird. The beak and tail tend to make up half of their small length. Most hummingbirds have ten tail feathers. These tails come in 2a variety of shapes, and depending on the way the sunlight hits it, these tail feathers may flash red, gold, purple, or black.

Intuitions :: Philosophy Judgement Papers

IntuitionsThis paper examines two attempts to exempt the way in which intuitions most specific cases are used as evidence for and against philosophical theories. gibe to the concept model, intuitions about cases are trustworthy applications of ones typically tacit grasp of certain concepts. We argue that regardless of whether externalist or internalist accounts of conceptual heart are correct, the concept model flounders. The second justification rests on the less familiar belief model, which has it that intuitions in philosophy derive from ones (often tacit) beliefs. Although more(prenominal) promising than the concept model, the belief model fails to justify traditional philosophical use of intuitions because it is not clear a priori that the beliefs at issue are true. The last mentioned model may, however, legitimize a less a prioristic approach to intuitions. If anything unifies different philosophical methodologies its some sort of reliance on intuitions. Its remarkable, t herefore, how rarely we attempt to justify their employment in philosophy. The intuitions philosophers care about are typically judgements about whether specific (hypothetical or actual) cases are cases of a certain kind. Some philosophical government issue such as reference, knowledge or personal identity is under investigation. A theory is proposed and is then tested against our intuitions about specific cases that bear on the topic. In general, if our intuitions contradict what a theory implies about whether, say, S refers to x, or knows that p, or is identical to T, this counts against the theory. If on the other hand, our intuitions match what a theory tells us about particular cases, this usually counts in favor of the theory.All procedures of this sort rest on a principle like I I Intuitions about specific cases can be used as evidence for and against philosophical theories. This paper is about whether I can be justified. We examine two models, the Concepts exercise (CM) an d the Belief Model (BM). In our view, neither of them provides a solid foundation for I as it is traditionally applied in philosophy. CMCM has quartet components1. A concept, C, determines what it takes for something to fall under that concept (what it takes for something to be a C).2. Someone who possesses or grasps a concept, C, doesnt always know explicitly what it takes to be a C because some (maybe most) concepts are understood by us in part tacitly.3. Intuitions about whether specific cases fall under C are reliably control by, or generally match ones understanding, tacit or otherwise, of C.

Smallville and its popularity :: essays research papers fc

Smallville vs. other paneling seriesMan, throughout the ages, has looked to the stars with great amusement and curiosity. Wondrous stories are born of these antical, glimmering specs in the sky. Stories of tragedy, magic and heroism. These stories entertain and more, they give us hope. A tale of the stars like no other is the one of Superman, protector of planet Earth.As said by the Superman stories, Clark Kent was discovered by Martha and Jonathan Kent shortly after a meteor shower hit the town of Smallville. Martha insisted on keeping the young boy and taking him into their family. Clark grew up on a farm helping out with chores and being loved by his human mother and father. The only difference with Clarks upbringing was that in the comics, he was just a baby when discovered by the Kents. In Smallville he was a boy about 6 years of age when he was found. This very scene I speak of has been played over and over in television besides the WB hit, Smallville (Kal-El). For exampleIn the 1990s cartoon pinkie and the Brain, The Brain tracks down Supermans rocket ship and tries to raise Clark himself, with Pinky. Fortunately, the super baby turns out to be too much for the Brain, as changing diapers requires an oxygen suit, and the piddling kid of steel uses his heat vision to blast the lab rat. Baby Clark makes his way back to the field where he landed and where the Kents find him. (Kal-El) The most celebrated version of this scene is shown in the Superman Movie with Glenn Ford playing Jonathan Kent and Phyllis Thaxter playing Martha Kent (Smallville). In this version the Kents find Clark and he displays his powers right away sooner of demonstrating them over his teenage years like in the Smallville series. It was so smart for someone to answer everyones questions as to how Clark grew up by giving them the front end row seat to Clarks teenage years. Especially since in any other version of Superman all we knew of was when he was discovered and when he was a lready Superman. Martha and Jonathan Kent have changed in the stories as well. All of the Superman stories have the Kents as an elderly couple in their sixties (Superboy). The 1978 movie version shows the Kents quondam(a) and so does the Lois and Clark TV series.

Smallville and its popularity :: essays research papers fc

Smallville vs. other Superman seriesMan, throughout the ages, has looked to the stars with great amusement and curiosity. Wondrous stories are born of these magical, radiate specs in the sky. Stories of tragedy, magic and heroism. These stories entertain and more, they give us hope. A tale of the stars like no other is the one of Superman, protector of planet Earth.As said by the Superman stories, Clark Kent was discovered by Martha and Jonathan Kent shortly after a meteor shower hit the town of Smallville. Martha insisted on keeping the un precedentd boy and taking him into their family. Clark grew up on a farm helping out with chores and being loved by his human mother and father. The only difference of opinion with Clarks upbringing was that in the comics, he was just a baby when discovered by the Kents. In Smallville he was a boy about 6 years of age when he was found. This very scene I speak of has been played over and over in television besides the WB hit, Smallville (Kal-El ). For exampleIn the 1990s cartoon Pinky and the Brain, The Brain tracks down Supermans rocket ship and tries to raise Clark himself, with Pinky. Fortunately, the super baby turns out to be too much for the Brain, as changing diapers requires an oxygen suit, and the tiny kid of steel uses his heat vision to blast the lab rat. Baby Clark makes his way back to the field where he arrive and where the Kents find him. (Kal-El) The most famous version of this scene is shown in the Superman Movie with Glenn Ford playing Jonathan Kent and Phyllis Thaxter playing Martha Kent (Smallville). In this version the Kents find Clark and he displays his powers right away instead of demonstrating them over his teenage years like in the Smallville series. It was so smart for someone to answer everyones questions as to how Clark grew up by giving them the front row seat to Clarks teenage years. Especially since in any other version of Superman all we knew of was when he was discovered and when he was a lready Superman. Martha and Jonathan Kent have changed in the stories as well. All of the Superman stories have the Kents as an elderly couple in their mid-sixties (Superboy). The 1978 movie version shows the Kents older and so does the Lois and Clark TV series.

Suffrage Movement during the Progressive Era

During the new 1800s and early 1900s womens lives were consumed with fighting for what they should nonplus always had equation. This fight for fairness is the main driving force behind the Progressive Era. Women were approaching together exclusively oer the country in a unified fight for womens rights. This massive reassign had been silently building up in the orbit for worldly concerny years prior to 1900 but it is here that we see the biggest changes. Women moving from the homes and houses to the factories and commercial sites. There argon other significant changes taking place as well.Women became frequently more involved in politics even though they could still not vote in public elections. This change in the thoughts and lives of women is ace of the main focus of the 20th century and the reason for our 19th amendment. During the Progressive Era the roles of women were ever-ever-changing dramatically payable to a number of reasons, but virtually importantly to the effo rts of clubwomen. In 1890 women founded The General Federation of Womens Clubs (GFWC). This was a major step for womens rights advocates as it established a major political presence in the country.The organic law of the GFWC represented the changing roles of women in the political world. Many women felt they were being oppressed and wanted change. Violence against women is part of a continuum of sexist power relationships which narrow our roles in the home, workplace & ordering. Inequality, poverty & alienation spawn further violence & make women more fearful which in turn causes them to limit their right to figure fully in city life. -1988 -The Safe City METRAC, Metro Action on Public Violence Against Women & Children, Toronto.The women of the GFWC rallied to confine women all over the country and they fought for equality on more or less every political front. The creation of the GFWC started a womens movement towards the clubwoman ideal. They were now beginning to move away from their roles as caregivers and housewives towards more industry lie positions. Progressive women began to create clubs which supported many different causes such as temperance and better working conditions. The most affluent of these clubs was the womans Christian Temperance Union.The WCTU light-emitting diode the way with womens rights and allowed women to voice their fears about home abuse as well as legal rights. Drawing from all over the country the WCTU gained much of its support from the middle-class women of the 1900s. By allowing these women to voice their thoughts and fears these clubs became very powerful tools in the political arena. The WCTU consisted of over 39 different departments dealing with everything from labor restructuring, lobbying, and public affairs, to health, education, and peace. By the 1890s the WCTU had over 150,000 members and over one million by the 20th century.The WCTU was important to white southern women in particular. These southern women w ere the most need in change due to a common southern idyllic that the woman should be a model of the family and should not be subjected to the harsh world outside the home. This act of retentiveness the women inside the home all day caused much resentment from the woman and led many women to join the WCTU. These women gradually became active working women and many leftover their abusive husbands in search of better living standards. Womens lives in the home as well changed a great deal.In the 1890s Catharine Beecher began to publicize her ideas on housework. She believed that it was possible to professionalize housework. As the first female to graduate from MIT she held a great deal of authority. Her ideas were set outd with mild success. She tried to blend technology, housework, and science together to create a better picture of the importance of women. The main result of this change was that it made women realize that they were more than a status symbol.A Major cause of the c hanging roles in the home was that women found themselves not able to join some new professions. Officially excluded from the politics of men during much of Canadas history , Canadian women have had their own politics. Who were these women who were willing to sacrifice the relative comforts of home, & the frequently permanent parting from family & friends most of them must have found their lives enormously changed but they fit to new ways of doing things. -1988. Prentice, Bourne, Cuthbert Brandt, Light, Mitchinson, Black They were unable to hold even some of the most unwanted jobs such as janitors and delivery persons.Women were in like manner restricted from voting. Their commentary was unimportant in both national and even local elections and this made them angry. Women could not hold public offices and were, for the most part, restricted from seizing any adequate to(predicate) amount of power. At the time many men believed women should not hold any power and that they were unsuited for work outside the home. This belief was so punishing in certain areas that women had even believed it for a time. Soon women began to become educated. Many colleges were beginning to allow women, both black and white, to attend.Reasons include financial stability, public wit and support, but most importantly the efforts of women like Susan B. Anthony, Jane Addams, Marion Talbot, Mary Church Terrell, and a number of other courageous women. Through the suffrage movement many women were allowed to receive a higher education. Education was originally only for men but women soon fought that tradition and many colleges began to allow women into classes. Women soon began to contend their places in society as well as their roles and both mothers and as part of the workforce. Because they stood up to the resistance slowly jobs were beginning to open up.There were many visible signs of womens changing roles. In the home they no longer looked after children as much as they used to. They were out getting jobs and didnt have the time to commit themselves to the childrens upbringing. They were also very much more involved in politics than ever before. Women wanted a voice and they were willing to fight for it. They did this by forming clubs and joining in many different movements. Many women felt they should become more involved in the community through clubs and politics and many wanted to expand their region of control.These women had once been situated mostly in the home but were beginning to challenge this idea. Some women liked the idea of clubs and unions because it allowed them to challenge the norm without sacrificing themselves completely. They believed it was necessary for the remotion of the age old gender distinctions. The biggest affect that clubs had on women was their ability to bring all the middle-class women together. This was such an amazing feat that it was hard for male politicians to challenge them. Women began to take control of the f inances more than they had in the past.They were bringing in income and felt that they should therefore be allowed to have a say in the finances. They were also more educated and as such believed they were capable of taking care of the finances. Another area that womens lives were changing in was that of relationships. At one time womens lives were controlled almost completely by men. The women had little say in anything and could not object to what the husband believed was right. Women were so restricted that they could not speak out even in cases of abuse.Being unable to object to their husbands caused a great deal of resentment and hurt the familys relationship. There are two general divisions to this subject of Equal Franchise. Is Woman Suffrage just and right? Is it expedient and desirable? I think an affirmative answer may be taken as granted all round. If it is admitted that Government is a human concern and that woman is just as human as man, all the rest follows. The fact t hat woman is different from man mentally and morally as well as physically is not an argument against her enfranchisement, but, in a representative system, a conclusive argument for it.No man, without womans co-operation can make a real home. Look at the conditions Countries that are nominally free being made the prey of monopoly, privileges and injustice, with such evil fruits as the liquor traffic, white slavery, child labor and abject poverty side by side with unimaginable wealth. Man has been a failure as a housekeeper, and it is high time that he took an equal partner the natural partner he should have had from the first.The infusion of womans keener moral perceptions and stronger spiritual ardor into diplomatic negotiations is what is needed to meet the perils of the day, and to bring the triumph of the Cause of Peace by securing the triumph of the Cause of Justice. Woman Suffrage, By J. W. Bengough (1922) http//www. adams. edu/academics/art_letters/hgp/civ/111/5suffragequo tes. html This was all beginning to change as women gained a voice and financial independence they also obtained the ability to divorce their husbands and discard earlier beliefs that women were showpieces. Women are persons in matters of pains and penalties, but are not persons in matters of rights and privileges. (1876 British Common Law ruling). This was overturned by the 18 Oct. 1929 Persons Case. When women won, Nellie McClung said Ladies, hang Lord Sankeys picture on the wall of the alliance Rest Room with Newton Wesley Rowells beside it, & let these names & the names of the other Lords of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council be kept in perpetual and satisfying remembrance The Progressive Era is known for many achievements, but most importantly for how it helped to shape the world we live in today. Womens lives have changed dramatically since the late 1800s. Women were once treated unequally both in the home and in the workplace. They were unrepresented in politics a s well. Women had to face many hardships during their fight for equality and much of this fighting began during the Progressive Era (1890-1920). Both in the home and in politics the lives and lifestyles of women have greatly improved.Women who once had no voice now were suitable clubwomen and voting on behalf of their parties. Women who were once confined to the role of housewife could now begin to seek financial stability in jobs such as care for and textiles. Womens lives were far from equal to that of men but the steps taken during the 1900s ensured that they would forever fight until that uniformity was established. There were many times when women struggled to gain equality, but none as important or as far reaching as the womens rights movement of the Progressive Era.

A Sympathetic Antonio in Hector Tobar’s The Tattooed Soldier

A Sympathetic Antonio in Hector Tobars The Tattooed Soldier BY ant28 Sympathetic Antonio In Hector Tobars novel, The Tattooed Soldier, worldly concerny of the characters experience unpleasant situations. These admit homelessness, Joblessness, and murder. These unpleasant situations lead to negativity in their lives, and this negativity can evoke feelings of sympathy. Of all the characters in Tobars novel, I believe Antonio deserves the greatest amount of sympathy because he lives a life of constant despair and is often treated unfairly, which is like a trap from which he cannot escape.Antonios wife and parole, Elena and Carlos, are hideed by Longoria. In the chapter, beset Escape, on page 183, it states l did not bury my wife and child, but I can stand and seek vengeance, for them and for the populacey, for the anonymous dead. at one time Antonio knew how Elena must have felt when she marched in the demonstrations. Now he could see why she was a revolutionary, he could underst and what had been a mystery before. This is how Elena felt, tall(a) and strong. This is what she was trying to tell me, but I wouldnt listen. Elena knew that to march with the numerous was to stand tall.Elena loved me because she knew I could be a brave fghter (Tobar 183). This shows that Antonio is upset because his wife Elena and his son Carlitos are killed. Elena had written a complaint letter to the government because people were dying due to the filthy water caused by the garbage that people dumped onto it. She request that the changes should be made in a nearby city. She was also famous for making her points clear. The Guatemalan government sent a soldier named Longoria to kill Antonio and Elena for complain to the fascist government and they found it to be a threat.Their family have been suspected of being informer immigrants and are being hunted down. Antonio escaped death by being at work when his family was killed. later on the death of his wife, Antonio had no choice bu t to escape from there if he wanted to live. He ran away to Los Angeles, hoping for a better life. Instead, Just the opposite occurred. Antonio felt sad due to the fact he was facing many hardships and has difficulties living. In Los Angeles, Antonio saw poverty and despair all over he went He was poor, had no Job, and no home. He became homeless because he was an immigrant.Antonio was an immigrant who didnt know that much English. He used to be a middle mannequin government worker in Guatemala. When Antonio came to Los Angeles, everything he knew became useless. It was like this for him since he couldnt communicate and he had to accept any Job that would help him earn money. He had to be in this situation if he did not want to be killed. He was living in a hotel but eventually he got kicked out of it and had to go live on the streets. In the chapter, Fire Escape, on page 183, it states that Antonio would stay in Los Angeles and track down the tattooed soldier and make him pay for his crimes.He would kill this man with his own hands ( Tobar 183). In the chapter, Department of Sanitation, on page 228, it states that l have been living this way, less than human, for longer than I can remember. I have been wearing the helmet of mourning and self-pity too long. I am living in the streets, under the starless sky. I am homeless (Tobar 22 In the chapter, Department ot Sanitation, on page states that there is a balance between us. We are opposites balancing a scale, we are mathematics. I am tall, he is short. I live under the sky, he lives under the roof.He as a girlfriend, I live alone. He has a Job, I do not. He is the killer, I am his victim. (Tobar 229). In the chapter, Department of Sanitation, on page 232, it also states In a matter of moments their shelter had been reduced to a tidy patch of dirt. After the police left, after he had listened to their final warning to stay off this property, Antonio went back to the lot and examined the ground, walking slowly in a growing spiral. in that respect was nothing to be found but the bumpy soil beneath his feet, the crisscross of the bulldozers long tracks, the wounds gouged by the shovel (Tobar 32).These are the three ways it shows that he is facing poverty and despair. Homelessness is why Antonio became the man he is. Antonio felt as if he had really lost everything. He had lost the family he had, his life in Guatemala, and now his apartment in Los Angeles. Antonio felt that being on the streets downtown made him feel braver than he had ever felt because he made choices that he most likely would never have made if he lived in his old apartment in Los Angeles. Antonio lets out his anger on an elderly man who attempts to steal a hot plate pan from a large trash bag f their belongings from his old apartment.Antonio runs after the old man and punches him multiple times. Antonio drove his fist into the mans face, the nose cartilage snapping under his knuckles. Another punch this one like hammeri ng nails into the ground, a clenched fist to the temple. A weak scream from the thief, and then one more punch, to the mouth. He felt ashamed and embarrassed of what he did to the old man, unlike Longoria who feels more alive(predicate) after his savage acts. Antonio eventually blames his actions on the surroundings. Antonio becomes determined to ill Longoria and begins to watch Longorias every move.He has the desire to kill Longoria for many reasons and wants to get rid of him. Eventually, under many conditions, Antonio does manage to meet Frank, another homeless man who is an African American on the streets of Los Angeles. As they both move from place to place, they spot Longoria. This sighting evokes feelings of mourning in Antonio, and asks Frank to help him get revenge. Frank is hesitant at first to assist Antonio but then does because he hears that Longoria can be confusable to a Nazi, and doesnt think again and offers to help.Just a few feet from the soldier, he raised the pipe in the air, lifting his arms and rotating his shoulders like a baseball pitcher in his windup, gathering a wave of strength in his muscles to kill the man once and for all, to rid the earth of him(Tobar 208). This is because Antonio came into his anger and tried to attack Longoria while he is at the park, playing chess with his friends. Antonio felt that he made his extinct baby and wife proud of him by doing this revenge. He also purchased a gas pedal to ensure himself that he would take the life of Longoria and make no mistakes while doing so.

Conformity Paper Essay

Conformity affects ones behaviour. There are two primary reasons why individuals conform. First, hoi polloi conform overdue to informational social influence. What this means is that people curse on others judgment about an ambiguous situation and use such judgment in choosing a particular(prenominal) course of action. The second reason is normative social influence. This refers to conforming simply to be accepted.Conformity is a big issue in most peoples lives. In my case, there has been numerous times wherein I relied on other peoples judgment to make a certain decision. The in truth simple example is determining what hair style would suit me best. I have consulted and asked for advice from my friends and family for this very simple matter. I could not decide for myself and I had to rely on their judgment. Another case wherein informational social influence was a factor for me was when I was deciding which course to take. To me, such decision seemed very confusing. There were a interchangeable many options. Thus, I needed to consult my parents. I asked them their opinion and ended up take overing what it was they advised me to do.Informational social influence is very evident in society particularly in advertising. Companies use advertisements wherein they promote their product by showing surveys conducted that show their product as the preferred choice of the majority. This is meant to influence consumers to follow suit. Most people would think, If most people choose this, then it must be the best choice. In other words, they leave their judgment to other people. This is a very good demonstration of how informational social influence affects the decision making and behavior of individuals.In the case of the second reason for conformity, normative social influence, I have had several experiences wherein it played a factor in my behavior at the given time. This was especially true during my teenage years. When I was a teenager, I felt the need to fit in . I wanted to be among the popular kids at school. In order to be among the popular crowd, I tried to do everything that the popular ones did.I dressed as I saw them dress, I talked and acted as they did. However, I noticed that the more I tried to be like them, the more they seemed to be distant. More importantly, my real friends and my family began to question me as to why I was doing things that were unexpected of me. As I grew older and matured, I began to realize that not only were my attempts in vain, they were ridiculous and unnecessary. Nowadays, every time I look back on those days, I cannot help but to laugh.Fitting in is a big problem for most teenagers. That is why most teenagers get into various kinds of trouble. Some teenage girls get pregnant at a very other(a) age simple because they thought that losing their virginity would make them more welcomed in the popular crowd. On the other hand, boys end up joining gangs as they search for a sense of belongingness. Drugs a nd alcohol also are common problems that teenagers face because of their wanting to fit in and be accepted by their peers. Basically, this is where the concept of peer drag comes in.Peer pressure is simply the result of normative social influence. Teenagers feel the pressure from their friends to do certain things. They feel that if they do not do as what their peers do, they will end up being scorned and laughed at. For a teenager, humiliation is a big drawback. This is the reason why teenagers end up changing their behavior simply to be accepted by others.

How Should You Use Citations Environmental Sciences Essay

Peacocks ar known for their immense fans of colourful tail plumes, called a train. Peoples waste kept these beautiful blue and spirt birds for 1000s of old ages. Sometimes the raillery genus Inachis io is recitationd to depict alone the male bird. The female is called a peahen.Peacocks perish to the pheasant ho expendhold, Phasianidae. There atomic number 18 three species, or types, of peacock-the blue ( or Indian ) Inachis io, the green ( or Javanese ) Inachis io, and the Congo Inachis io. The unaccompanied Inachis ios that have trains of tail plumes are the males of the blue and green types.Peacocks normally live in lowland woods. At dark they sleep in trees. The dismal Inachis io comes from southern Asia, while the green Inachis io comes from southeasterly Asia. The Congo Inachis io is ground in cardinal Africa.In both the blue and green types, the male s organic structure is approximately 35 to 50 inches ( 90 to 130 centimetres ) long. Its train of metallic green tail plumes is about 60 inches ( 150 centimetres ) long. Each tail plume has a reflecting topographic point at the terminal of the plume that feels like an oculus. A crest, or tussock of plumes, excel the male s caput. The peahen of both these species is green and brown. It is about every bit large as the male.Male blue and green Inachis ios put on a showy show when seeking to pull couples. The Inachis io lifts its train and spreads it like a fan. It so struts about and agitate its train, doing the plumes shimmer and rustle.The Congo Inachis io is chiefly bluish and green. Its tail is short and rounded. The peahen is ruddy and green.BeginningPeacock. ( 2011 ) . In Britannica Junior Encyclopedia. Retrieved JanuaryA 22, 2011, from Britannica Online for Kids hypertext transfer protocol //kids.britannica.com/ elementary/ expression-9353606/PeacockGreen Invaders April 18, 2008Green encroachers are taking over America. Nope, non encroachers from infinite. Plants. You index non believe of deedss as unsafe, but in this instance they are endangering nature s delicate nourishing web.The encroachers are workss from other states brought here to do gardens and paces look pretty.A Ever since people started to demand on America s shores, they ve carried on trees, flowers, and veggies from other topographic points.Now there are so many of those workss, they are herding out the native workss that have lived here since before human colonists arrived.And that s a job, says Dr. Doug Tallamy. He s an bugologist ( an insect expert ) at the University of Delaware. He explains that about all the phytophagic insects in the United States-90 % of them-are specialized. That means they eat exclusively certain workss.Monarch butterfly caterpillars, for metaphor, dine on silkweed. If people deletion ingest silkweed and re derriere it with another works, the butterflies will non hold the nutrient beginning that they need to last.But the problem does nt halt at that place, it goes rig ht across the nutrient web. When insects ca nt postulate the right workss to eat and they die away, so the birds do nt hold adequate bugs for their repasts. Tallamy points out that about all migrating birds depend on insects to feed their immature. We can non allow the workss and animate beings around us disappear, says Tallamy. The expressive style to continue them is to give them nutrient to eat. But when we works non-native workss, we are basting the nutrient web, beca custom so we do nt hold the insects the birds need to populate. Fewer of the right workss mean fewer bugs, and fewer bugs mean fewer birds. And that s bad for the Earth, because we need a assortment of populating things to maintain the planet healthy and beautiful.The good intelligence is, nurserymans everyplace are working hard to protect native workss and acquire rid of the encroachers. to a greater extent than topical anaesthetic garden centres sell native workss. Just Google native workss and your lo cation, and you can happen out which workss truly belong where you live, says Tallamy.Planting the right things makes a animate difference, and warm. He describes seting milkweed in a bantam metropolis courtyard about the size of a life room atomic number 53 spring. By summertime, that milkweed spot had produced 50 new sovereign butterfliesTallamy encourages childs to travel out and works native workss. Adopt a bird species in problem and see if you ca nt works some things that will pull the insects they need, he suggests. It will happen-insects move around a batch, and they will happen the workss you put out at that place for them Text by Catherine Clarke FoxFox, C. ( 2008 ) . Green encroacher. Retrieved January 22, 2011, from national geographic childs hypertext transfer protocol //kids.nationalgeographic.com /kids /stories/animalsnature/Bite Flesh-eating Plants March 14, 2007 I want people to acquire passionate about workss, says Lisa Van Cleef about a new exhibit at the San Francisco Conservatory of Flowers. Everybody gets excited about the menagerie and animate beings, but one time you start looking at workss you find they have a batch traveling on, excessively Particularly the carnivores, or meat feeders, that use the sneakiest of fast ones to pin down their insect dinners. Take bladderworts, for illustration. They appear so little and delicate growth in a quiet pool. But these are the fastest-known slayers of the works land, able to suck in unsuspicious mosquito larvae in 1/50 of a 2nd utilizing a trap penetrationOnce the trap door stopping points on the victim, digestive enzymes similar to those in the human tummy easy consume the insect. When dinner is over, the works ejects the remains and is ready to pin down once more. Carnivorous workss turn in topographic points with dirt that does nt offer much nutrient value. You and I could take a vitamin pill, says Van Cleef. But these astonish workss have had to germinate over 1000s of old ages , developing insect traps to acquire their nutritionary demands met. Just expression at all they ve done in the troth to last. AThe traps can be well-disguised to gull the oculus, like hurler workss, which get their name because they look like beautiful hurlers full of nectar.The Asian hurler works, for illustration, has a brilliantly colored rim and an luring half-closed palpebra. Curious insects are tempted to come close and take a sip, so skid down the slippery incline to their deceases.Hair-like growings along the hurler walls guarantee that nil can scramble out, and the digestive enzymes can acquire to work. A bantam insect called a midge might be digested in a few hours, but a fly takes a twosome of yearss.Some of these hurlers are big plenty to keep two gallons ( 7.5 litres ) . Carnivorous workss merely eat people in scientific discipline fiction films, but one time in a piece a little lizard, gnawer, or bird will detect that a hurler works is nt a good topographic point to acquire a drink. Other workss have found different ways to catch a bite. Sundewsand butterworts snag bites with flypaper-like stickiness, while the Venus flytrap catchs shut on its victims.Carnivorous workss grow largely in wet countries, from sea degree to the mountains. They may look alien, but if you live in the United States, you do nt hold to go to faraway lands to see some. North America has more carnivorous works genera than any other continent.If you ca nt go to the exhibit in San Francisco, look into out a carnivorous works guidebook from your local library, and you may detect some turning in your cervix of the forestsFox, C. ( 2007 ) . Chomp meat-eating workss. Retrieved January 22, 2011, from national geographic childs hypertext transfer protocol //kids.nationalgeographic.com/kids/ stories/ animalsnature/meat-eating-plants/Basic Rule every last(predicate) lines after the front line of each entry in your pay heed dip should be indented one-half inch from the left bord er. This is called hanging indenture. generators names are inverted ( last name foremost ) give the last name and initials for all writers of a peculiar work for up to and including seven writers. If the work has more than seven writers, list the first six writers and so usage eclipsiss after the 6th writer s name. After the eclipsiss, list the last writer s name of the work.Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first writer of each work.If you have more than one article by the same writer, single-author mentions or multiple-author mentions with the exact same writers in the exact same order are listed in order by the twelvemonth of publication, get downing with the earliest.When mentioning to any work that is NOT a diary, such as a book, article, or Web page, furnish merely the first missive of the first word of a rubric and caption, the first word after a colon or a elan in the rubric, and proper nouns. Do non capitalise the first missive of the 2nd word in a hyphenated compound word.Capitalize all major words in journal rubrics.Italicize rubrics of endless plants such as books and diaries.Do non italicise, underline, or set quotation marks around the rubrics of shorter plants such as journal articles or essays in emended aggregations. disport note While the APA manual provides many illustrations of how to mention common types of beginnings, it does non supply regulations on how to mention all types of beginnings. Therefore, if you have a beginning that APA does non take, APA suggests that you find the illustration that is most similar to your beginning and usage that format. For more nurture, see page 193 of the Publication Manual of the American mental Association, 6th edition.In-Text Citations Author/AuthorsDrumhead APA ( American Psychological Association ) is most normally used to mention beginnings within the societal scientific disciplines. This resource, revised harmonizing to the 6th edition, 2nd printing of th e APA manual, offers illustrations for the general format of APA seek documents, in-text commendations, endnotes/footnotes, and the mention page. For more information, please confer with the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition, 2nd printing.Subscribers Elizabeth Angeli, Jodi Wagner, Elena Lawrick, Kristen Moore, Michael Anderson, Lars Soderlund, Allen Brizee, Russell KeckLast Edited 2010-11-16 021054APA mood has a series of of import regulations on utilizing writer names as portion of the author-date system. There are extra regulations for mentioning indirect beginnings, electronic beginnings, and beginnings without page Numberss.Mentioning an Writer or WritersA Work by Two Writers Name both writers in the repoint phrase or in the parentheses each clip you cite the work. ingestion the word and between the writers names within the text and engage the ampersand in the parentheses.Research by Wegener and Petty ( 1994 ) supports( Wegener & A Petty, 1994 )A Work by terzetto to Five Writers List all the writers in the signal phrase or in parentheses the first clip you cite the beginning.( Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & A Harlow, 1993 )In subsequent commendations, merely utilize the first writer s last name followed by et Al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses.( Kernis et al. , 1993 )In et al. , et should non be followed by a period.Six or More Writers Use the first writer s name followed by et Al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses.Harris et Al. ( 2001 ) argued( Harris et al. , 2001 )Unknown Writer If the work does non hold an writer, mention the beginning by its rubric in the signal phrase or utilize the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and studies are italicized or underlined rubrics of articles, chapters, and web pages are in citation Markss.A similar survey was done of pupils larning to arrange research documents ( Using APA, 2001 ) .Note In the rare instance the Anonymous is u sed for the writer, handle it as the writer s name ( Anonymous, 2001 ) . In the mention list, use the name Anonymous as the writer.Organization as an Writer If the writer is an organisation or a authorities bureau, reference the organisation in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical commendation the first clip you cite the beginning.Harmonizing to the American Psychological Association ( 2000 ) , If the organisation has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in brackets the first clip the beginning is cited and so utilize merely the abbreviation in ulterior commendations.First commendation ( Mothers Against Drunk driveway MADD , 2000 )Second commendation ( MADD, 2000 )Two or More Plants in the Same Parenthesiss When your parenthetical commendation includes two or more plants, order them the same manner they appear in the mention list, separated by a semi-colon.( Berndt, 2002 Harlow, 1983 )Writers With the Same Last Name To forestall confusion, usage first initial s with the last names.( E. Johnson, 2001 L. Johnson, 1998 )Two or More Plants by the Same Author in the Same Year If you have two beginnings by the same writer in the same twelvemonth, use lower-case letters ( a, B, degree Celsius ) with the twelvemonth to order the entries in the mention list. Use the lower-case letters with the twelvemonth in the in-text commendation.Research by Berndt ( 1981a ) illustrated thatIntroductions, Forewords, Forewords, and Afterwords When mentioning an Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterwords in-text, mention the becharm writer and twelvemonth every bit usual.( Funk & A Kolln, 1992 )Personal Communication For interviews, letters, electronic mails, and other person-to-person communicating, mention the communicators name, the fact that it was personal communicating, and the twenty-four hour period of the month of the communicating. Make non include personal communicating in the mention list.( E. Robbins, personal communicating, January 4, 2001 ) .A. P. Smith besides claimed that many of her pupils had troubles with APA manner ( personal communicating, November 3, 2002 ) .Mentioning Indirect BeginningsIf you use a beginning that was cited in another beginning, call the original beginning in your signal phrase. List the secondary beginning in your mention list and include the secondary beginning in the parentheses.Johnson argued that ( as cited in Smith, 2003, p. 102 ) .Note When mentioning stuff in parentheses, set off the commendation with a comma, as above.Electronic BeginningsIf possible, mention an electronic papers the same as any other papers by utilizing the author-date manner.Kenneth ( 2000 ) explainedUnknown Author and Unknown Date If no writer or day of the month is given, utilize the rubric in your signal phrase or the first word or two of the rubric in the parentheses and utilize the abbreviation n.d. ( for no day of the month ) .Another survey of pupils and research determinations discovered that pupils su cceeded with tutoring ( Tutoring and APA, n.d. ) .Beginnings Without Page NumbersWhen an electronic beginning deficiencies page Numberss, you should seek to include information that will assist readers happen the transition being cited. When an electronic papers has numbered paragraphs, use the A symbol, or the abbreviation parity. followed by the paragraph figure ( Hall, 2001, A 5 ) or ( Hall, 2001, parity. 5 ) . If the paragraphs are non numbered and the papers includes headers, provide the appropriate header and stipulate the paragraph under that header. Note that in some electronic beginnings, like Web pages, people can utilize the Find map in their browser to turn up any transitions you cite.Harmonizing to Smith ( 1997 ) , ( Mind over Matter subdivision, parity. 6 ) .Note Never use the page Numberss of Web pages you print out different computing machines print Web pages with different folio.

Early learning studies Essay

In the first five years of life, a kidskin has gone through and through rapid development in physical, cognitive, and well-disposed/worked up characteristics. Around the time these children st invention kindergarten, their outgrowth has slowed down. However, it is button up vital for the kindergarten t severallyer to know how their pupils have actual and what they throw out do to further develop their educatees as a whole. According to Educating Children in Nursery Schools and Kindergartens by Lillian L. Gore, by the historic period of 5 children ar breeding how to relate to differents in a positive manner.This skill forms the basis of any human relations (16). In general, kindergarten- get on withd children are beginning to develop their own ego image and their likes and interests through sensory and other experiences (Gore 16). To a kindergarten-aged child, the world is big and mysterious. The combination of physical, cognitive, and genial/emotional development allo w these children to explore and begin high-minded basic come out and control over their environments (Gore 16). Overall, these experiences allow children to understand and appreciate the world approximately them.When the instructor looks at the overall development of their kindergarten students, the physical, cognitive, and social/emotional positions are relatively similar across each child. That is to distinguish that each child experiences relatively the same development in all triple areas. Physically, a kindergartener has two distinct developmental characteristics. 1 is the individual characteristics such as rate of growth, body build, and eye color (Gore 17). The teacher should respect each childs unique characteristics and teach others to respect them as well.2 is each kindergartener has a wide output of energy (Gore 17). A kindergarten teacher should expect their students to be fully active one day and inactive the conterminous. Similarly, the activities the children participate in receive different levels of energy from day to day (Gore 17). Cognitive development in kindergarten in vital for a child to understand and experience all that give lessons and the world have to offer. In Gores book, she notes two historic cognitive developments that a kindergarten child experiences. 1 is the development of hand-eye coordination (Gore 17).At this stage, children are developing awareness for e very(prenominal)thing that demand both hands and eyes in order to function straitlacedly. As the teacher, you should be aware of the students and their surroundings. Particularly on the playground, the teacher should know the students inability to judge speeds and distances properly (Gore 17). To process oneself in the development of proper hand-eye coordination, the teacher should incorporate hand-eye coordination lessons and activities into the daily schedule. The second important cognitive development in kindergarteners is that they want to grow and learn (Gore 19).Kindergarten is a stepping stone into what trail exit be like for the rest of their lives, and the fact that each student wants to grow and learn agnizes the teachers job easier because the students are intrinsically motivated. To further their pleasure of learning it is important for the teacher to provide conditions for each student to explore, discover, and feed their sense of wonder at their own pace (Gore 19). Teachers should also allow students to recover and solve problems at their own pace as well (Gore 19).By letting each student work at his or her own pace, the student feeds their desire to grow and learn and also learns that they are receptive of many things. One of the most important developments that kindergarten children make is social and emotional developments. Both these developments aid children in forming friendships, relationships and emotional maturity as their lives continue. Two social developments are highlighted in Gores book. 1 is that ch ildren pull up stakes fluctuate their patterns of social growth and they may regress at times (Gore18).This is a natural process that children go through and navigating it piece of ass be tricky. As a teacher, we should assist children to pass on in and out of groups at lead (Gore 18). This leave allow children to experience many different people and form many friendships. As teachers we should also encourage students to relate an experience with one group of students to experiences with another group (Gore 18). This will allow each student to mentally process each experience and square off which experiences they prefer to have, which in turn leads to them having friends of similar beliefs and interests.Above all, kindergarten children learn how to cooperate with others when they choose which group of students to associate with. The second social characteristic that kindergarten children develop is their tasting of children of the same sex as playmates and friends (Gore 18 ). As a teacher we should support this development and help each child learn appropriate sex power with their peers. In addition, kindergarten teachers should also encourage children of the opposite sex to interact.When it comes to emotional characteristics of development, the 1 characteristic is that children in kindergarten are learning how to accept and give affection (Gore 18). This developmental characteristic is vitally important because if children do not learn how to give and accept affection, then all their relationships with others will be short-lived. We as teachers can help foster this important characteristic by providing warm relationships for emotional growth in the classroom and individually with your students (Gore 18).In addition to the developmental characteristics, a kindergarten teacher must also be aware of how they arrange their classroom. Utilizing space and organizing the classroom to best suit the needs of the students allows each kindergartener to maximiz e their use of the classroom. In Doris Frombergs book The Full-day Kindergarten, it is important to know both the teachers and the students views on foursome elements relating to classroom trunk of rules. Those four elements are Choice what the students will be doing. Space where the students will be engaged.Pacing when the students will be participating. Social Activity how and with whom the students will interact (Fromberg 62). These elements are also applicable to what the students are doing in a kindergarten classroom and what activities they participate in. By disposition when and where to implement these four elements, the classroom experience will be enhanced for all the kindergarten students. In a kindergarten classroom, the students are capable of making choices that are relevant to the school-day procedure (Fromberg 62).When a kindergarten student, or any other someone, chooses what to do, their attention is higher to that activity than if they had not chosen. Howeve r, this is not to say that kindergarten students enter into an anything goes classroom (Fromberg 62). The teacher has preselected and screened everything that is already in the classroom to ensure that it is safe and educationally-sound. The teacher also screens the materials that students bring from home on the same criteria (Fromberg 62).By ensuring that all materials in the classroom are on the same level and that the children decide what they want to do, they will establish a issue of making independent choices knowing that what they choose will spark their interests and be educationally appropriate. The space and organization of the classroom is an important concept to consider when in a kindergarten classroom. Kindergarten students enjoy moving around and be independent, but also need a sense of stability and security.How the classroom space is organized reflects four characteristics about the teacher and the classroom in general 1) How independent the students are expected to be. 2) How responsible the students are expected to be. 3) Relays what activities are valued in the classroom. 4) How students will spend their time in the classroom (Fromberg 64). When organizing the classroom, it is important to keep materials where they will be used and in limited-use sections. By creating a section of the room scarce for writing, or art, or practice session, children will be more cogitateed on that activity or feel part of a small group (Fromberg 64).Limited-use sections also help the students answer the question, What will I do next? (Fromberg 64) For example, a child that is finished at the writing center will know that on that point is nothing more they can accomplish at this center they decide that they want to work on their art project and move to the appropriate section. By utilizing limited-use sections, the students are minimizing procrastination and are maximizing their ability to select their own choices. By using these elements, Fromberg descr ibes a properly organized kindergarten classroom.In a kindergarten classroom, all materials are stored where they will be used books are in the reading areas, writing supplies are in the writing area, and art supplies are in the art area. The students work in the areas where the materials are stored. This not only keeps them focused on their tasks, but also eliminates the possibility of misplacing materials. These active work areas should be located away(predicate) from student desks or other areas where students are meant to concentrate and reflect (Fromberg 64). In addition, the teacher should always organize their classroom where they and the students are visible to each other at all times.This not only allows the teacher to monitor behavior, but it also allow students to see what molding behavior looks like. In addition to the organization of the room, there also needs to be proper time management as well. Proper time management can help reduce the issues that recrudesce in t hose students who have ADHD or other unpredictable behavior patterns (Fromberg 66). In a full day kindergarten classroom, it is beneficial to have a whole-class proviso session in the morning and afternoon, with a small gathering before lunch or around 1100 AM according to Fromberg (66).Kindergarten instructors have represent it helpful to provide at least two long activity blocks of 30 minutes or more each day (Fromberg 66). In this time, the students will be engaging with the different sections of the room art, writing, reading, etc. at their own choice and pace. From having this time to select which activity to do and how long to do it for, the students are inspired to make long-range plans and increase their sense of control over their environment (Fromberg 66). Within the kindergarten environment, the lessons and activities should emphasize academic content but also in the flesh(predicate) relationships and social behaviors.While kindergarten does prepare students to do scho ol and everything that comes with it, I believe that lessons and activities that stress proper relationship proficiencys and social behaviors are just as important. For example, kindergarteners may not realize what they say sometimes and although they find nothing wrong with it, the teacher or others students will. Having several lessons on how to talk to other students in a nice and polite way will not only benefit the students in class, but they can take that knowledge and apply it to other situations as well, such as talking to adults.Lessons that demonstrate proper social behaviors and etiquette will also benefit kindergarteners. For example, how to stay quiet and listen while another person is talking or how to solve conflicts in a regardful manner will again not only benefit the students in the classroom, but also prepare them for the world as they grow older. Finally, classroom management is very important in a kindergarten class. A teacher could have a absolutely organized room and excellent lessons, but if they cannot manage their students they will never get a chance to utilize their room or lessons.Firstly, the kindergarten teacher should make a set of class rules for the school year. In addition to their professional opinion, the teacher should ask the students themselves what rules should be followed during the school year. This serves two purposes 1. it reinforces the element that children are capable of making relevant choices pertaining to school and 2. It allows the students to feel that they have a say in how the classroom is to be run. By having this sense of control, the students are more credibly to follow the rules and provide less argument when disruptions arise.Secondly, student behavior accountability should be established. In her article Classroom Management, Jody Camp describes her accountability system. She has four circles displayed in her room, each a different color and face. All the students have a clothes pin with their name on it. Every morning each student starts on the green smiley face. If a student breaks one classroom rule, they move their clothes pin to the yellow face. The yellow face is a exemplification for the student to start acting correctly. In addition to that, the student drops 5 minutes of recess.If the student breaks another rule, they move to the red face, which means the student needs to stop and conceive about what they are doing. The student also misses an entire recess. The last face in Jody Camps management system is the no-account sad face. This means that the student needs to go to the principals office (Classroom Management). By implementing these or similar classroom management techniques, any teacher will be successful and be able to focus the majority of their time on educating the minds of America.As a student moves through elementary school and into spirit school many changes occur so fast that they may, to the frustration of teachers and parents, act like kindergar teners once more. However, it is important to realize and understand the developmental characteristics of middle school students so they still have a positive educational experience. Similar to kindergarten students, middle school students have their own unique set of physical, cognitive, and social/emotional characteristics. Physically, middle school students are in transition between their childhood bodies and their adult bodies.This leads to three main physical characteristics. Susan Robinson, Guidance Counselor at Southern Columbia School District in Catawissa, PA, nicely lays out physical characteristics of middle school students (5th-8th grade) on her webpage. The first physical characteristic is biggish muscleman development (5th variety Characteristics). In boys, this means that their arm and leg muscles are becoming more defined, as well as their abdomens. In girls, muscle development leads to growth spurts and gaining weight.The second physical characteristic is the des ire to be outdoors and physically challenged (5th Grade Characteristics). It is at this time that both boys and girls become very fire in sports and physical activity. This characteristic can also lead to a decline in school performance because the students are more interested in playing outside than doing homework. The third physical characteristic is that they become restless and in constant motion (sixth Grade Characteristics). The need to move and be active can also lead to declining performance because the students wont be as focused.This can also lead to more discipline because the students cant stay in one place for extended periods of time. Cognitively, middle school students are now open to more abstract and logical ratiocination than ever before. The first cognitive characteristic is that 5th grade students have is an increased keeping and ability to abstract (5th Grade Characteristics). The increase in memory potential allows the students to remember more academic info rmation, but also helps them remember social activities like birthday parties and phone numbers.The second cognitive characteristic is the phylogenetic relation for logical reasoning and problems solving (5th Grade Characteristics). 5th and 6th grade students are now using more of their brain in every aspect of life which allows them to solve and reason more than ever before. Similar to how kindergarten students like to impose control on their environments, middle school students enjoy the feeling of being able to solve a problem or think logically with classmates and teachers. The third cognitive characteristic of middle school students is their increased concentration in all aspects of school (5th Grade Characteristics).With the increase of concentration students are able to read, focus on homework, and participate in activities for longer periods of time. This cognitive gain can help balance out the need for driving force during physical development. Middle school is the time w hen every student starts to define who they are and who they want to be. socially and emotionally, each middle school student is becoming more mature as they grow older and it is important to know what developmental characteristics these students face. When a student is in 5th grade they are more socially and emotionally sound than 6th graders.The first developmental characteristic of 5th graders is that they are largely content with themselves and others (5th Grade Characteristics). At this stage they are in a state of equilibrium in terms of social and emotional growth. This is not to say that 5th graders are void of anger. When this age group gets angry, they tend to get angrier faster than usual but they also are faster to forgive (5th Grade Characteristics). The second characteristic of 5th graders is that they work well in groups and enjoy team-oriented activities such as sports and clubs (5th Grade Characteristics).Because they are generally content, it boosts 5th graders ab ilities to work cooperatively. This age group would benefit greatly from pods in the classroom and team-oriented competition. Lastly, 5th graders are mostly truthful and are developing a larger sense of correct and wrong (5th Grade Characteristics). At this age, students want to be taken seriously because they feel that they have valuable opinions. They realize that they cant lie and be taken seriously so they tell the truth. Also, as they are telling the truth more, they are expanding their sense of proper(a) and wrong.It is at this point when crucial right/wrong situations should be explained to the students such as drugs and alcohol. When a child hits 6th grade, they change once again and sometimes not for the better. There are three main characteristics of 6th graders from Susan Robinsons website. The first is that 6th graders become more moody and sensitive (6th Grade Characteristics). 6th graders are starting to hit pubescence and this messes with their normal selves. The h ormones set off mood swings and sensitivity towards almost any situation.It is important to know this because it could be the cause of many problems with your students. The second characteristic is that 6th graders are becoming more autonomous and with that comes more opposition to rules and punishments (6th Grade Characteristics). As they get older, the students begin to realize that they are held to higher standards but still try to get around those expectations. This inevitably leads to confrontations between teacher and student(s) and the student(s) will test your patience at this age. The third characteristic is more positive.As the students age and grow during 6th grade, they will start to take on an adult personality (6th Grade Characteristics). They will lessen their oppositional behavior and become more respectful and dutiful in school work and social activities. While their bodies are going through a massive amount of change in a short period of time, it is important to la yout the classroom, lessons, and management techniques to keep up with these middle school learners. First off, it is important to keep the students in groups when at their desks.This helps the students remain social with others and it helps the students to keep working in teams. As they are older, each student should be given their own desk. This allows the student to become more independent and it allows for individualization to show through if they are permitted to decorate their desk. Similar to the kindergarten room, there should be sections of the room where students can go to complete different assignments. Especially at this time, the movement will allow these students to relieve some tension from their growing bodies.Overall, the classroom at the middle school level starts to become similar to that of high school and college classrooms, but should still represent a sense of home and security for 5th and 6th graders. The lessons and activities that these students participat e in should also be developmentally appropriate. At this stage of life, the students are beginning to think and reason logically. Therefore, lessons in math and science can enhance the individual students ability to think and reason logically. In addition to logic and reasoning, social skills are key to a healthy development.In 5th and 6th grade, it is important to teach and model proper social etiquette and behaviors. One way to accomplish this is to have the students sit in pods when at their desks. This serves two purposes 1) it allows each student to work in fill up proximity to other students and 2) it allows students to practice proper social behavior on a daily basis. Lastly, students at this age are going through major physical changes and it is important to keep that in mind when designing lessons and activities. When possible, incorporate some form of physical movement into your lesson plans.This will allow the students to move their bodies and go along focus in school. If you simply let the students sit at their seats all day, they will become restless very quickly and will lose focus and interest in what you are trying to teach them. Similar to the kindergarten classroom, without successful classroom management techniques, the teacher will struggle to maintain focus and interest in their lessons. With this age group, routines are essential to having successful classroom management. As noted by many teachers, routines help the students to know what is coming next in the school day and how to proceed from one task to the next.With a regular routine, students wont need to be told to take out their reading materials or their math books they will already know what is coming. By establishing successful routines, the teacher can minimize distractions and maximize learning time. Another management technique that I remember from 6th grade was the use of a money management system. My teacher, Diane Dale, set up a management system that revolved around the use of a weekly allowance for each student.Each student started the week with a predetermined amount of money, i. e.$100. Actions in class had all a positive or negative effect on the students allowance. For example, if one student got a perfect on their math test, they may get $25 added to their account. If another student starts a fight on the playground, besides the consequences of the principal, they may lose $75. At the end of each week the students with the 3 highest allowances got to pick a prize from the Class Treasure Chest. To my recollection, this system worked well in our class and I plan on modifying this management system to create my own.All in all, as an elementary teacher it is important to know and be able to work with students from all age groups. By understanding the characteristics of the students in your class, you will be able to maximize the effectiveness of your lessons because they are aimed to work with their developmental characteristics, not as a substi tute. In addition, to knowing developmental characteristics, a teacher should also institute effective classroom management techniques and proper lesson plans that will maximize the learning experience for each student. Works Cited Gore, Lillian L. , and roseate Koury.Educating Children in Nursery School and Kindergartens. Washington U. S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, 1964. Print. Wills, Clarence Dechent, and Lucile Lindburg. Kindergarten for Todays Children. Chicago Follett Educational Corporation, 1967. Print. Fromberg, Doris. The Full-Day Kindergarten. 1995. eBook. Camp, Jody. http//www. atozteacherstuff. com/Tips/Classroom_Management/Managing_Behavior/index. shtml Robinson, Susan. http//www. scasd. us/ms/RobinsonPage/grade5. htm White, George. Incoming 6th Graders. http//www. ringwoodschools. org/files/ryerson/parent_orientation_booklet. pdf.

Dell Computers (a): Field Service for Corporate Clients [Hbs 9-603-067]

Case Dell Computers (A) Field Service for Corporate Clients HBS 9-603-067 1. What are the key challenges DELL should be concerned with as it enters the too large scale server market? Support military divine service in server market is more critical than in personal computing device market, especially when the server is a large scale single, since a problem in server even for a short time could ca rehearse serious problem in the customers business. Having realized the importance, competitors such as Hewlett-Packard and IBM reduced their solvent time to enhance the persona of their support service.Dell also is extraordinarily committed to senior high school-quality service, they proposed the response time as short as four hours. In order to accomplish their guaranteed lead time in highly volatile situation, Dell has cardinal big challenges. (1) They should train number of technicians for a high cost. Support service for servers cannot be mainly depended on call center or service website as Dell did for personal computers. (2) They have to keep their inventory higher than desired in their operating philosophy where they believed there is an inverse correlation between the arrive of inventory and the quality of information. . Should DELL outsource the four hour service level support or should DELL provide the service with in-house resources? Why or Why not? Dell should provide the service with in-house resource if they are to win in the server market because it has been successful in personal computer market with the strategy of Dell direct model. The computer manufacturers strength in personal computer market was to deliver high quality products and services tailored to meet customers needs.Potential corporate customers will consider purchasing Dells server expecting the same thing for servers. Just exchangeable Kapoor was wondering, the customers will not buy their servers, if the quality of Dells products and services were worse than its competitors. If Dell outsources the support service, the quality of service and products will decrease for 2 reasons. First, they cannot keep entire control over the support service if they cannot train their own technicians.As the case says they value the experience in customer interaction resulting in high quality of their service. They cannot expect the same thing from another company who would do the service on behalf of Dell. Second, Dell has been able to improve the quality of its products by directly interacting with its clients and using the feedback from support service. If Dell loses the source of information or compromise the quality of information, the company will have difficulty to maintain its theme in product quality.The information from the in-house support service will also help to keep its server parts inventory lean, given they can mend estimate the needs of those parts with more accurate information. Of course the company could reduce training cost by outsourcing support se rvice. However, the price elasticity in server market is lower than in personal computer market since the potential problem that can be caused by bad support service and product is critically serious. Reliability is more important than the cost or the price they could reduce by outsourcing and compromising the quality of their service and product. . If DELL outsources the service support, then should it use IBM as a vendor to provide the service support? Why or Why not? Dell should not use IBM as a provider of the support service even if it decides to outsource the service. IBM may seem to be an attractive service provider because they are the one who can do the job the best. The company has more than 135,000 specialists in support service as well as long and extensive industry experience. However, IBM is a competitor in server market, the strongest one considering their market share.Even though IBM is willing to provide service to Dell, we cannot be sure that it will provide the sa me quality of service to Dells customers as to their customers. Furthermore, if IBM could interact with Dells customer frequently, there always is a chance for them to take the customers from Dell. The service provider could obtain critical information regarding Dells product, which could also be a cause for competitive loss for Dell. Again, Dell should not lose its luck to directly interact with their customer especially to their worst enemy in order to win in the market.

Thinking About Diversity

The di mensions of cultural innovation atomic number 18 categorized as primary dimensions and vicarious dimensions. Primary dimensions are generally considered fixed and involuntary. Age, gender, race, and pagan heritage would be examples of primary dimensions. People do not pass water a choice of when they are born and thus their age. Gender, race, and ethnic heritage are in addition not open to choice. Mental and physical abilities are also usually defined as primary dimensions of diversity. Specific biological functions of the brain place be considered primary dimensions of diversity, but knowledge and education can improve mental force.It is also doable to improve physical ability to a certain extent by incorporating healthy diet and physical conditioning into ones lifestyle. Physical ability is listed as a primary dimension of cultural diversity because height, bone structure, and other physical attributes are genetic and not open to choice. Sexual orientation is also a primary dimension of diversity. Secondary dimensions of diversity include attributes that are considered less central to social identity. These dimensions can change based on life experiences. They include where one lives and works, socioeconomic status, education, and religion.Ethnic, Cultural, or Other Groups I Identify With I am a Black female who identifies with the Black community of interests as well as other ethnic groups. I was born and raised in a spectacular metropolitan city. I am a product of my big city upbringing. I believe that being raised in a large city has equipped me to be puff of airable in many settings and with people from any group or cultural background. The Black culture and history is precise important to my lifestyle. I work with young men and women in the Black community to advise them on career paths and encourage them to make positive life choices.As a woman, I am very concerned with many of the issues that are affecting women. The rise in teen pr egnancy is one issue that I address with young women I encounter. personnel against women is also a problem that is prevalent in society. Women continue to be subordinated and discriminated against, and the struggle to change the situation is one of my top priorities. My social circle is do up of professionals who enjoy cultural pursuits such as plays, music, concerts, and charitable activities. Diversity and Inclusion Diversity refers to any mixture of items characterized by differences and similarities, (Harvey & Allard, 2009, p. 11). This definition refers not good to people but also to the differences and similarities of functions or conditions along a given dimension. In identifying diversity in an organization, it is also important to identify the similarities within a group. When management accesses a group of ethnically diverse individuals, if they focus on the similarities among them, it will be easier to build common ground and mutual respect.Inclusion is a technique th at organizations can use to optimize the benefits of a culturally diverse workplace. Rather than just focusing on cultural diversity as a quota to fill, organizations can use the cultural, ethnic, and experiential differences of employees to add creativity, bare-assed ideas, and new strategies. When every individual thinks that he or she is operating in a safe environment, they can be comfortable sharing innovative ideas that may not follow the traditional concepts of the organization. Importance of Workplace Diversity Training Effective workplace diversity training can benefit an organization in many ways.Increased productivity can result when employees appreciate and learn from the cultural or ethnic differences of their fellow employees. Workplace diversity training will increase the emotional intelligence of individuals which will increase their tolerance of differences. Emotional intelligence is awareness of egotism, managing self, self motivation, awareness of the emotions i n others, and managing interpersonal relationships, (Harvey & Allard, 2009). Emotional intelligence and emotional maturity can allow individuals to be open to the possibility of considering differing opinions and strategies.More openness among group members within an organization will increase creativity, cooperation, and collaboration. When cultural and ethnic diversity are successfully managed within an organization, minority employees will feel acceptance and comfort which will encourage them to express innovative ideas without fear of repression or ridicule. The majority employees will be given the opportunity to expand their acceptance and knowledge of varied values, beliefs, and opinions. Workplace Culture and Inclusion I have had the opportunity to work in large and small organizations. During high school, I worked in a large department store.There were many races, ethnic groups and ages. The age groups in the workplace were in three categories. There were older workers who had worked in the store for many years and had made it a career. These employees spent most of their free time socializing with each other, such as breaks and lunches. They were generally very friendly and helpful to new employees. The second category was made up of managers ranging in age from about 25 to 40. Most of the managers were college educated and were hired specifically as managers. There were also managers who had started at an entry-level position and worked their way up to management.The third category, which I belonged to, was made up of young high school and college students. This category generally socialized with each other. I do not recall any negative interactions based on race, culture, sexual orientation, or ethnic heritage. Throughout my career I have worked with a variety of ethnic groups, races and ages in a variety of corporate settings. I have always been fortunate to work in very inclusive organizational settings. I have not worked in an organization tha t discriminated against employees based on their diverse ethnic or cultural backgrounds.

Muscular System Essay

The human muscular outline is made up of over 600 connecting muscles. All of the muscles elaborate together in sync to make your automobile trunk move in several different ways.None of the body clays can work without muscles and your muscles cant work without your a nonher(prenominal) body systems so that means that all of your body systems need each other to work and make your body function correctly.Your muscles need protein, nutrients, and oxygen to move and work. Then the circulatory system carries those essential particles to your muscles from the digestive and respiratory systems. That is when your circulatory system carries the leftover waste back to the original systems to be discharged from your body. Your nervous system runs the unhurt show by telling your different systems to make this whole process happenMusclesYour muscles be made up of body tissue which consists of very very splendid fibers which make up your muscles and you also have ligaments which help your m uscles move in the right way. Each of your muscles argon trusty for their own special job. All of your muscles contract to provide motion when the brain sends a foreshadow through the nervous system which argon stimulants. These stimulants tell your muscles to move your arms, legs and other muscles move your eyelids and they all work in sync to make you walk and talk. There are some muscles in which you have no control over like the muscles in your privileged electric organs like your heart, stomach, and other organs in all of your body systems.There are three different types of muscular tissues. There are the Smooth, the Skeletal, and the cardiac muscular tissues. Smooth muscles are made of spindle-shaped cells. Smooth muscles are found in the skin, internal organs, reproductive system, major blood vessels, and excretory system. Skeletal muscles are composed of long fibers surrounded by a membranous sheath, thesarcolemma. Since the Skeletal muscles are under control by whom eve r they belong to are called voluntary muscles. This muscle is disposed to two or more bones which are then attached to the skeleton by tendons. For example, head and neck muscles contraction of these muscles produces facial expressions and head movements. They are also responsible for speech and swallowing. Skeletal muscles are the main muscles which move your body.Muscles nearly always work in incorporate groups contraction of one muscle is accompanied by relaxation of another, while other muscles stabilize nearby joints. Then the last of the muscle types is the Cardiac Muscle or the involuntary muscles. Cardiac muscles are not under conscious control they do not react by a persons decision or movement. and are connected to the nervous system which are stimulated by autonomic impulses. Cardiac muscles are found in your internal organs like the heart or the intestine. For example they include muscles that be active food through the intestine and those that control sweating and bl ood pressure.Muscles that are properly exercised react to stimuli speedily and powerfully. As a result of excessive use muscles may have an abnormal increase of an organ or tissue in the muscle cells. That is why if you work out at the gym your muscles come larger, but if you overwork your muscles they decrease sometimes to a fraction of its original size and becomes substantially weaker

Power and Politics in Organization

Power and regime in Organizations common office and esoteric Sector Comparisons Joseph LaPalombara Wolfers Professor of semi semi indemnity-making lore and Management School of Management Yale University A chapter for the Process of organisational larn section of the Handbook of Organizational Learning, ed. Meinolf Dierkes, A. Berthoin Antal, J. Child & I. Nonaka. Oxford Oxford University Press, forthcoming. DRAFT Please do non cite with erupt authors permission. Power and Politics in Organizations Public and Private Sector ComparisonsJoseph LaPalombara Yale University Political Organizations and Their Milieu Organizational reading come ups roughly of its acquaintance from research on organic laws in the closed-door sector, char impressericularly from the study of the soaked. Its rich interdisciplinary quality is reflected in the range of social sciences that return contri plainlyed to the fields robust schooling. The contri provided whenion from policy-making s cience, however, has been minimal ( commonwealths be suggested in the chapter on politics by LaPalombara in this volume).The mutual failure of policy-making scientists to pay to a greater extent arrangingatic attention to organisational schooling and of organizational take ining specia arguments to extend their inquiries into the state-supported/ semi g e reallywherenmental ambit is unfortunate in at least three senses. First, a general conjecture of organizational study is unlikely to emerge unless and until what is claimed to be crawl in rough this phenomenon is shown to be the case (or non) in the exoteric/ g all overnmental sphere as puff up.Second, sufficient evidence in governmental science even so if non garner with organizational learning as the primal focusshows that organizations in the cosmos/ semi governmental sector do differ in signifi raftt miens from those in the mysterious sphere. And third, considerations of indicator and its exercise atomic number 18 so ubiquitous in earth/political-sector organizations, indeed they be so central to an imageing of these bodies, that champion wonders wherefore frequently(prenominal) meager attention has been paid to this cin one casept in the literature on organizational theory and organizational learning.The present chapter is intended to show that the integration of political science into the field of organizational learning result be improved and that experience most organizational learning it egotism exit be deepened if c settlee magnitude attention is focussed on two general headers What characteristics of organizations in the public/political sector see them from organizations in the private sector? And what argon some of the implications of these differences for the over every(prenominal) field of organizational learning?The prescriptive Dimension The answer to the first question must be that one and perhaps the close owing(p) distinguishing characteristic of pu blic/political-sector bodies is that they be normative at their core. For organizations in the private sector, utility and faculty argon ordinaryly accepted as primary values. Theories near them ar naturally based on the boldness that these bodies ar unionized and behave according to rational principles that reflect these values and non other(a) considerations.This assumption, however, corpse so central to writing about management that, as shown below, it actually serves to impede almost all serious attention to cause and politics in private-sector, for- summation entities. To be sure, every portrayal of private-sector, for-profit entities as monumental social organisations exclusively and rationally oriented to the market and the so-called can line is a good deal too b be and oversimplified.Even when this flaw is recognized or conceded, however, organizations in the public/political sector ar quite contrary, so the logic and reason fittedness that whitethorn a pply to a private-sector body chamberpotnot good be extrapolated to them. These differences argon to a fault reflected in the ways in which public-sector organizations relate to the learning process. The position that they typically carry very great(p) and distinctive normative baggage is lonesome(prenominal) one of numerous dimensions along which differences whitethorn be assessed.Normative considerations are endemic to public/political-sector organizations, first because they are directly or indirectly convoluted in what Easton (1953) once called the authoritative allocation of values(p. 129). This phrase is a short chip in way of describing a governments vast organizational apparatus that engages in a wide range of activities over people. These activities typically acknowledge topics over which even the meekest of persons come acrossed allow argue and fight with severally other, sometimes violently. These contrasts, or differences in preferences (i. e. hat government should do or not do), apply not unspoiled to the ends of government unless too to the office chosen to bring these ends to fruition. In Lasswells (1936) brutally unvarnished observation, politics is about Who Gets What, When, How. Where organizations are agonistic or hemmed in by normative considerations, appeals to logic and rationality do not travel far or acquire many receptive ears. Even when political issues appear to be localizetled and consensus is reached, say, on the desirability of a given policy, normatively driven questions will arise over the musical manner or method of policy exercise.Because these policies guide things that happen (or do not happen) to human beings, considerations of expediency and force-out will a lot take a backseat to normative estimates about goal achievement. In Etheridges (1981) give-and-takes, much(prenominal)(prenominal) normative matters in like manner raise the issue of what should government learn and what should governmen t not learn (p. 86). To cat it bluntly, learning things about goal-setting or policy instruction execution that may be rational and efficient scarcely that are palpably unfeasible politically is not only a waste of resources but in any case a one-way ticket to political bankruptcy.This and other fonts of public/political-sector organizations to be discussed below make for a good deal of messinessin organizational boundaries in the specification of organizational missions and authority in the functional, territorial, and hierarchical division of labor that relates to policy-making and policy execution and so on. This messiness cautions against a too-easy extrapolation to the public sphere of agency theory or concepts such as principal federal agent kinds. These theoretical frameworks may work quite well for the private sector, where one finds much clearer statements of urpose or of means and ends and where the boundaries demarcating organizations, their authority, and their re sponsibility are much much than(prenominal) unambiguously delineated than in the public political sphere. To cite the most axiomatic example (see Mayntz and Scharpf 1975, for example), in the public sphere it is not easy to separate, say, the legislature (as principal) and the bureaucracy (as agent) for the simple reason that in many circumstances the bureaucrats not only administer policies but overly de facto make policies.In fact, the fabric of public policy-making and its administration is typically a seamless admixture of clumpised and unofficial bodies interacting together in ways that make it next to im attainable to distinguish principals from agents. This aspect is in part what I mean by messiness. Other Dimensions of Differentiation. It will help clarify the in high spiritser up rendering if one considers some of the additional dimensions that differentiate organizations in the public/political sphere from those in the private sector. The distinctions drawn are n ot a matter of black or white but shape of one of degree.In every instance, however, differentiation is at least a caution against thinking that differences amongst the private and public/political spheres are superfluous, mis top offing, irrelevant, or non endureent. The dimensions are the organizations (a) purposes or goals, (b) accountability, (c) autonomy, (d) taste to action, and (e) surroundings. Purposes and Goals Political organizations are typically multipurpose. The public policies they are anticipate to make or administer will much be quite vague, diffuse, contrary, and even in engagement with each other (Levin and Sanger 1994 648).What governments do is so vast and touches on so many different aspects of organize society that it would be astonishing if these policies did not have such characteristics. Even where single agencies of government are concerned, their purposes, goals, specific marching placesto say nobody of their procedures and actual behaviorwil l rarely be coherent or logically consistent. Not only are the mandates of government rulely quite vague and diffuse (Leeuw, Rist, and Sonnichsen 1994 195 Palumbo 1975 326), they may not be known to many of the people who make up the organizations designated to carry them through.It is not unusual for such organizations to have no goals at all (Abrahamsson 1977), or to have goals that appear to be quite irrational (Panebianco 1988 20419 26274). For this reason rational-actor models, in which it is assumed that preferences are exogenous to the organizations themselves, rightly draw criticism when applied to public/political organizations (Pfeffer 1997). Accountability In the private sector, a timeworn cliche is that those who manage publicly held coc recognizeeds are responsible to their shareholders.As Berle and Means (1933) long ago established, this claim is extensively a myth. If the ensuing decades have changed this situation at all, it is only in the influence now exercise d over the fast(a) by some of the rather large institutional ornamentors as well as by some stock analysts. Occasionally, even the big bucks media may influence what a corporation does. The corporate corporations relatively recent references to managements accountability to stakeholders does not make the publicly held hard similar to public/political organizations.In comparison with those who are in public office or who manage political and other political organizations, corporate managers roll in the hay in splendid freedom. Paying attention to stakeholders is, like many other aspects of corporate policy, a matter of managements choice. In the public/political sphere, accountability to a wide spectrum of individuals and organizations is an inescapable fact of organizational life. bulk in the public/political sphere who fail or refuse to understand this fact spend very little time there.Public-sector officials, especially those who occupy governmental office, whether appoin tive or elective, wisely pay attention to and bewilder about many constituencies, all of which are more or less ready and able to apply sanctions if their hankeringes or advice are not followed. The vaunted autonomy of the executive weapon is much more limited than one supposes (Levin and Sanger 1994 17). In all democratic systems, what the executive does is subject to trouble by legislatures and to challenge in the courts. And the latter two institutions are themselves subject to checks by still others.All of them are under continual scrutiny by foreignrs prepared to intervene. In addition, many activities that are considered legitimate, and even praiseworthy, in the private sphere would subject public office-holders to arrest, prosecution, and possible imprisonment were they to practice them (Gortner, Mahler, and Nicholson 1987 604). Consider, for example, the publics quite different reactions to words like broker and influence peddleror the variety of meanings ascribed to a term like corruption.As noted by Child and Heavens (in this volume), the universal coach of governmental and other public-sector organizations is that they are subject to constitutions, laws, administrative regulations, judicial decisions, executive orders, and so on. The actions of these persons called upon to manage these organizations are constrained by outside and national de facto rules, and limitations (Rainey and Milward 1981). Comparable examples of accountability in the private sector are rare. Public/political-sector organizations are too for more porous than private firms are.The former are easily permeated by organized outside interest groups determined to pull these organizations, and therefore their leaders and managers, in different policy directions. The mass media (often the promoters of precedentful interests in civil society) excessively often make quite explicit and sometimes contradictory demands on them. Because these organizations are presumably illust rateatives of the public and are expect to behave in its interest, the press is expected to be especially vigilant on behalf of the public. Above all, public-sector organizations in democracies are subject to the influence of political parties.These parties have their own preference orderings of issues and their own sense of the public policies required to deal with them. Their agendas are essentially normative rarely do they brook qualification or interference on grounds of efficiency or similar considerations (Gortner et al. 1987 659). Members of governmental organizations, even when protected by civil service laws, dare political parties at considerable risk. This exposure may be extreme in the United States, but it is endemic to European and other parliamentary systems as well. AutonomyThis condition of multiple accountability, courtly and informal in nature (Cohen and Axelrod 1984), implies that political organizations are considerably less autonomous than private-sector org anizations. Not only are the formal chains of command multiple and complex, but informal influences and stuffs often limit, sometimes drastically, the degrees of freedom devote to persons in these organizations. Although managers in the private sector are as well as not free to act exactly as they force out prefer, their organizations (as long as they wage at bottom the law) are immensely more autonomous than public/political sector organizations are.Two additional characteristics relating to autonomy are worth noting. First, not only the goals of these organizations may not only be dictated from the outside, they may also be dependent on other external bodies to achieve them. Lawmakers need the executive branch, as do the courts, to have their policies enforced. Central governments need regional or local governments. A single policy may require the coordination and collaboration of different governmental bodies, many of which are in competition or conflict with each other.And , as I noted earlier, no-hit goal achievement may in part also lie in the hold of political parties and interest groups. Furthermore, governmental bodies or agencies often disagree about goals and policies. Evaluations of how well or poorly organizations are doing will be driven not by objective criteria (assuming they are getable) but rather by political ideology and partisanship. Even at bottom the comparable government, exist organizations will be in conflict over policies, such as in the case of ministries and departments that spend money while others have to worry about deficits, exchange rates, inflation, and so on.Even in exceedingly authoritarian or dictatorial political systems, such factors make organizations in the public/political sphere, if not radically different in kind from their counterparts in the private sector, then certainly different in the valence of the factors that I have been enumerating. To summarize, the missions of these public/political bodies, t heir membership, the resources provided for operations, the pay backs and punishments for good or bad goal achievement, and often the sheer survival of the organization itself are all matters that typically lie outside the organization itself.Hence, before taking initiatives, persons in political and governmental organizations will make careful internal and external assessments. First, they seek to discover how their superiors or flying colleagues may retrieve about a policy or mode of policy peachy punishment. Second, they look to how this policy or mode of implementation will sit with those internal or external forces that bum impinge on their maestro careers, their economic well-being, or the welfare of the organization itself.Third, they make assessments about what will lie in the way of their ambitions, including, perhaps, their propensity to make and enforce given policies. This basic pattern suggests that these organizations are under enormous pressure to engage in l earning. Attention will certainly be paid to other governmental agencies, political parties, labor unions, trade associations, religious or ethnic groups, the courts, the mass media, professional associations, the corporate community, and other political and governmental jurisdictions at home or a openhanded that may affect the organizations well-being.The list is very long of constituencies that wield enough force-out, formal or otherwise, to either dictate or oppose certain policies or facilitate or nullify their successful implementation (Dean 1981 133). Failures to perform calculations of this kind and to learn about these thingsand at a reasonably high level of competencewill hobble or defeat the persons or organizations involved. The corporate community has taken to engaging in somewhat similar scan in recent years, largely because of the internationalization of the firm.When managers extend their operations abroad, they come to appreciate the value, indeed the necessity, of scan these new environss for aspects that are not, strictly speaking, directly related to the market. As noted above this scanning has also been practiced at home, for national and local governments have come to exercise jurisdiction over matters that affect the life and situationly the profit or loss of private enterprise. atomic number 53 can generalize this drift by noting that managers are increasingly impelled to engage in scanning whenever gaps begin to appear between a corporations policies and its actual performance.Failure to catch sight of such gaps before the media do can carry severe consequences. Orientation to Action The conditions described above do not encourage much initiative by public/political-sector organizations. Action tends to be reactive, not proactive, and prophylactic, not sophisticated. Fresh ideas are typically viewed as threats to a delicate equilibrium between internal and external forces. Few people wish to risk taking steps that big businessman trigger chain reactions with unknown consequences.Conservatism, not risk-taking, becomes the modal orientation to action. Persons in the private sector, and the mass media, lament attitude, sometimes stridently. They overlook, perhaps, that they themselves are partly responsible for the shortcomings that they criticize. Conservatism also grows out of the fact that these organizations are much more tied to tradition and more deeply charge than is true in the private sector. These traits, too, make them extremely resistant to change.Whether legislatures (Cooper 1975), political parties (Panebianco 1988), or bureaucratic agencies (Powell and DiMaggio 1991 Scott 1995) are meant, the length of time they have been around will greatly condition what the organization is capable of doing, including its capacity to learn and, on this basis, to change. Max Webers (1958) reference to bureaucracys dead hand (p. 228) suggests that this type of conservatism is brought about by the very same char acteristics that he associated with legal-rational authority systems.Some writers have designate this phenomenon strong institutionalization (Panebianco 1988 53). Others have called it the embeddedness of values, or norms, that affect the cognitive systems of organizations (Herriott, Levinthal, and March 1985), the governmental sphere, therefore, endless examples show that efforts to better these organizations fail more often than not (Destler 1981 16770). This pattern does not mean that the bureaucrats who run these organizations are beyond anyones match or that change is impossible (Wood and Waterman 1994).It does mean, however, that organizational change is extraordinarily knotty to carry off, given the magnitude of inertial forces (Kaufman 1981). The budget process and goal displacement in the public/political sphere are additional factors that impinge on an orientation to action. For instance, not only are public budgets controlled from outside the organizations that depend on these allocations, in the short and medium terms, they can be modified and redirected only minimally, and at the margins. This circumstance is one reason why political scientists who wish to identify the most force-outful groups and organizations, within government tself and within civil society, will profile public budgetary allocations over fairly long periods of time. Goal displacement occurs when the personal interests and expediency of organizational leaders and members come to occult and replace the purpose(s) of the organization itself. This tendency is ubiquitous in the political sphere. Cooper (1975) nicely summed it up in his observation on the U. S. Congress He tack together that institution quite vulnerable to the deleterious effect the pursuit of residual goals of its members involves. These self-regarding goals distort policy orientations and block institutional illuminates by making individual self interest or collective partisan avail the focus of attention and the criterion of action (p. 337). Mayhew (1974) found that the best explanation for the action orientation of members of Congress is the strength of each members the desire be reelected. In extreme form, and in many different types of organizations, these characteristics actually result in a transformation of the organization itself (Perrow 1972 17887).The Environment Because the environment of organizations in the public/political sphere is so potently normative, the policies enacted there are not only temporary but also contested in their implementation every step of the way some(prenominal) inside and outside government. Knowing about these aspects of their environment, the managers of public/political organizations engage in a predictable type of environmental scanning and learning. For example, they learn whether to pay more attention to the legislature or to the executive office (Kaufman 1981).In order to be at least minimally effective in their environments, the organi zations involved must learn the ways and means of overcoming the kinds of constraints that I have been summarizing (Levin and Sanger 1994 668, 1716). Indeed, considerations of organizational efficiency may be and often are entirely irrelevant to decision-making and choice in the political sphere. Successful entrepreneurs in this context are the ones who learn how to conk and/or help their policies survive in an environmental landscape full of dangerous surprises and subject to frequent and radical change.The basic knowledge to be internalized is that this s fructifyter will remain continuous and that space for freedom of action will not last long. It is these qualitiesambiguity, messiness, and continuous contend and conflictin the political and governmental environment that lead political scientists to give considerable attention to power and its distribution two among and within organizations. That attention mud intense, but that power is an elusive concept invariably laden w ith all sorts of normative claims about to what type of power is legitimate and what type is not.In political science there is fairly broad agreement (Dahl 1968) that power is the ability, through whatsoever means, of one to person make another do his or her bidding, even and particularly in circumstances in which doing so is not what the other person wishes or prefers. Power and Organizations The Role and strain of Power Struggles Power, and the struggle over it, describe the essence of the political process. Rothman and Friedman (in this volume) note that scholars writing on organizational learning rarely take conflict and conflict resolution into consideration.They add that organizational conflict, even in the hands of authors as skilled as March and Olsen (1976), is not mentioned as one of the factors that may interdict the successful development of a learning cycle (see also March 1966). This neglect stems in part from the tendency, widespread in both the corporate community and management literature, to consider conflict itself as something extremely undesirable and potentially pathological and, therefore, as something to be defeated (Hardy and horse tick 1996 6278 Pfeffer 1981 29).It cannot be without negative consequences, either for the theory of organizational learning or for attempts to apply it in the workplace, that such organizations are almost never studied from the vantage point of power and of the competition that takes place to create and economize control of it or wrest it from others (Berthoin Antal 1998 Dierkes 1988 Hardy and Clegg 1996 631). One author (Kotter 1979 2) noted that the open want of power is widely considered a sign of bad management.Indeed, the authors of management literature not only hold over the behavior associated with power struggles but also condemn it as politicking, which is seen as parochial, selfish, divisive, and illegitimate (Hardy and Clegg 1996 629). Kotter (1979) found, for example, that in 2,000 arti cles published by the Harvard Business Review over a twenty-year period, only 5 of them included the word power in their titles. This finding is astounding. It suggests that power is treated like a dirty little family hole-and-corner(a) Everyone knows its there, but no one dares come right out to discuss it.One might imagine, though incorrectly, that the situation has changed for the better in recent decades. An examination of the Harvard Business Review with Kotters same question in mind shows that only 12 of more than 6,500 articles published in the period from 1975 to mid-1999 contained the word power in their titles and that 3 contained the word conflict. Leadership appeared in nine titles. In a prototype of abstracts of these articles, one finds, as expected, the term power somewhat more often than in the articles titles.But the term is almost never treated as a central concept that orients the way the researcher looks at an organization or develops propositions about its in ternal life. This finicky, keep-it-in-the-closet attitude toward power is puzzling. For political scientists, the question of power in organizations is central for many reasons because power is held unequally by its members, because there is a continuous struggle to change its distribution, because these inequalities and efforts to change them inevitably lead to internal tensions.A persistent quest in political science, therefore, is to neaten the structural aspects of public/political management that permits those involved to confront and handle power confrontations without defeating the purpose of the organization itself. Is There a Power Struggle? The puzzle of inattention to power in the fields of organizational theory and organizational learning is all the more intriguing given that leading organizational theorists, such as Argyris and Schon (1978, 1996) and Perrow (1972), have certainly addressed this matter.For example, Perrow treated organizational traits such as nepotism a nd particularism as means by which leaders of economic and noneconomic organizations maintain their power within them. Because these organizations are the tools of those who lead them and can be used to accumulate vast resources, a power struggle typically occurs over their control (pp. 1417). And because of goal displacement that may accompany such power struggles, organizations may well become things-in-themselves (pp. 1889).It is possible that leading theorists such as Argyris and Schon (1978, 1996) and Senge (1990) have themselves been excessively reticent in treating phenomena such as power struggles within the firm (Coopey 1995). It may be that corporate managers are in denial and therefore accurse to acknowledge that even they, like their counterparts in politics, are playing power games. Firms, and the literature about them, strive the beauty of teamwork and team players. Plants are organized around work teams and quality circles. Mission statements are always reiterated.H uman resource managers expend enormous energy instilling the firms culture as a distinctive way of doing things. People who excel at the approved traits are rewarded with promotions and stock options. All these practices might be cited as evidence that corporate behavior is instrumentally rational and that the search for power, especially for its own sake, is foreigner to the firm. This way of thinking and describing things leaves little room for attention to the power games that lie at the essence of most organizational life.Thus, making decisions about corporate strategic plans and the budgetary allocations that go with them defining of core crinklees and the sloughing of what is not core effecting mergers, acquisitions, and alliances and carrying out radical corporate restructuring that may separate thousands of persons from their jobs and yet dazzlingly reward others would typically be seen by political scientists as behavior that is quite similar to the kind of power strugg les that take place every day in public-sector organizations.Behind the veil of corporate myth and rhetoric, managers obviously know about this aspect of their environment as well. So do writers for the financial newspapers, where words such as power struggle appear much more frequently than they do in the management journals. How could it be otherwise when the efforts at leveraged buyouts, struggles to introduce one product line and abolish others, and differences over where and how best to invest abroad take on the monumental dimensions reported in the press?It would be astonishing if the persons involved in these events were found to actually believe that considerations of personal and organizational power are not germane(predicate) to them. Nevertheless, as Hardy and Clegg (1996) noted, the hidden ways in which senior managers use power stinker the scenes to further their position by shaping legitimacy, values technology and information are conveniently excluded from analysis. This nail down definition obscures the true workings of power and depoliticizes organizational life (p. 629). Attempts to correct the queasy orientation to the ingenuousness of conflict and power struggles have been relatively rare.One reason is that not alone the actors in the corporate community but also students of such things come to believe in the mythologies about empowered employees, concern for the stakeholders, the rationality of managerial decisions, and the pathology of power-seeking within organizations. Their belief is a pity in that, without doubt, the structure of power, explicit or implied rules about its use, and the norms that attach to overt and covert power-seeking will deeply affect the capacity of the organization to learn (Coopey 1995).In any case, there can be no doubting the fact, however much it may continue to be obscured in the corridors of corporate power, that struggles of this kind deeply affect corporate life its external behavior and who gets what , when, and how within these institutions (Coopey 1995 2025). The Benefits of Power Struggle Power struggle, of course, is not the only aspect of organizations worth study, and the world of politics is not incisively Hobbesian in nature. Cooperation is the obverse of conflict.How power is defined and whether the definition reflects left-wing or right-wing bias makes a difference in thinking about or conceptualizing the salience of power in organizations (Hardy and Clegg 1996 6235). In particular, it is essential that one avoid any definition or relatively broad conceptualization that does not take into account that, in any organization the existing rules of the game even if they are considered highly rational and legitimate, constitute in themselves the outcome of an earlier (and typically ongoing) struggle over control of an organizations resources (Hardy and Clegg 1996 629).When the ubiquitous existence of power struggle within organizations is acknowledged and put into proper pe rspective, when power-seeking (even when the impulse is entirely ego-centered and not driven by organizational needs) is accepted as normal behavior, and when it is recognized that no existing organizational structure is entirely neutral, only then can one hope to clarify what kind of single-loop or double-loop learning is likely to occur.For example, Coopey (1995) argued, correctly in my view, that where the distribution of power within an organization is hierarchical and asymmetrical, the type of organizational learning that proceeds in such contexts will tend to buttress the status quo. Their reasoning makes sense not just because, for example, the learning process tends to promote senior managers but also because the kind and quality of information to which those managers have regain becomes, in itself, an instrument for exercising and preserving ones favorable position in the power hierarchy.In the public sector, double-loop learning is even more impeded and therefore rarer t han in the private sphere. The reason is that politics, in both the organizational environment and political organizations, actually infuses every aspect of what public-sector organizations are and what they do. The more substantial the sphere of action or the issues treated by these bodies and the more public attention they draw, the more difficult it will be to reach consensus.And once consensus is reached, the more improbable it will be that anyone will either want to modify it or succeed in doing sono matter what the feedback about the policies and their efficacy may turn out to be (Smith and Deering 1984 26370). Double-loop learning in the public sphere is impeded also by the formal judicial separation of policy-making and policy implementation, as for example between legislative and administrative bodies. As noted earlier, policies are infrequently the choices of the organizations called on to implement them.In this setting, endemic to governmental systems, certain types of impediments to organizational learning tend to materialize. On the principals side, there may not be sufficient time, or technical competence, or interest to learn what is actually going on with policy implementation. The probability is low, therefore, that those who make policy and set organizational goals will ever get information that might encourage a realistic joint of goals and a rational specification of the means to be used in goal achievement.Organized interest groups are well aware of this gap. As a consequence, their typical strategy is to keep fighting for what they want, not only when alternative policies are up for consideration but also (sometimes particularly) after an unwanted policy has formally been adopted but must still face the vagaries of being carried out. On the agents side, whatever is learned about policy implementation that might urge a change of methods or of the policy itself may never be articulated at all, for to do so might upset an existing politic al equilibrium.Not only are these equilibria difficult to obtain in the first place, they often also involve an unspoken, symbiotic relationshipoften dubbed the Iron Triangle (e. g. Heclo 1978 102)between a specialized legislative committee, a bureaucratic agency responsible for administering the specialized policies, and the organized interests that benefit from particular policies, particular ways of implementing these policies, or both. Potential learning that would upset this balance of forces finds very rough sledding.The treatment of whistle-blowers, who sometimes go public with revelations of misguided or distorted policies or of bad methods used in their administration, is eloquent evidence of this problem. One way to overcome the stasis implied by these tendencies is to encourage power struggles, not to obscure them (Lindblom 1971 2142, 647). vigor will galvanize the attention of politicians and bureaucrats more than learning that organized groups with a vested interest in a given policy and large numbers of faithful voters are unhappy about a particular aspect of public policy.When these groups lie outside the Iron Triangle, they are far less inhibited by considerations of equilibria then when they are inside it. This single-issue focus is indeed one of the reasons why even slight and not well-financed public advocacy groups can sometimes be very effective in bringing about change (Heclo 1978). The trick is to maximize transparency, to encourage more group intervention as well as prompt the media to provide more, and more responsible, investigative reporting than they usually offer.Today it appears that the Internet is nimblely becoming an important instrument for the timely, accurate, and detailed exposure, now on a orbicular scale, of conditions that require correction. The organizational learning implications of this development are potentially enormous. Increased transparency implies, if nothing else, a more democratic, capillary diffusion an d sacramental manduction of information (see also Friedman, Lipshitz, and Overmeer in this volume).In an organizational context, whether in the private or the public sphere, this fact unsocial modifies the form, quality, and spread of learning it also brings about a modification of the organizational power structure itself. such(prenominal) modifications also mean that the structure and variety of conflict will change. In political science this kind of transformation, which widens and deepens competition, is considered to have healthy implications for the overall political system in which competition takes place.That is, benefits are expected to derive from the fact that the market becomes, in comparison to the more dirigiste state, more Smithian, less concentrated, and less dominated by a handful of competitors who, rhetoric aside, rarely pursue the general welfare but rather much narrower considerations. At the very least, increased transparency and the radiateing of the comp etitive sphere clearly require that political managers develop a set of skills that permit them to meet such challenges and function well within these constraints.New Signals from the Private Sector Something similar to this attitude about encouraging conflict may be developing in the private sector. Gortner et al. (1987) lamented that theories of the organization simply do not deal with the issue of politics, and . . . that these theories interpret power as an internal phenomenon usually related to the area of leadership (p. 76). But change may be afoot(predicate) in this respect for at least two reasons.Contributors to this volume as well as writers such as Pfeffer (1981, 1997), Coopey (1995) and Hardy and Clegg (1996) may well succeed in their efforts to raise self-consciousness and broaden and refine theories of the organization and organizational learning to include attention to power and politics. Second, variations and abrupt changes in the environment of business are ubiquit ous today and likely to intensify tomorrow. It could not be otherwise in an era of globalization of the firm, in which, more than ever before, firms venture into a wide variety of ethnic settings.In addition, managers increasingly come from a wide variety of cultures and professional backgrounds where values and norms are not needfully carbon copies of each other. An organizations capacity to read signals about politics and power distributions, outside as well as inside the firm, and to make quick, constructive adaptations to them will represent not just a luxury but also a necessary condition for establishing a competitive improvement in the global marketplace.In limiting cases, this capacity may actually become a necessary condition for survival. Power-driven behavior within the firm not only is endemic to such organizations but system spectacular irrespective of the degree to which the firm succeeds in creating an internal environment that is homogeneous, harmonious, and coll aborativean environment people by those who share corporate values and a corporate culture and who stress collective over individual goals (Handy 1993 12349).By definition, the firm is typically an organization that places high value on the competitive spirit. That spirit is an aspect of human behavior everywhere and that can scarcely be divorced from the impulse to obtain and hang on to disproportionate shares of power. Improved understanding of the structure of such internal competition also illuminates the relationship between these kinds of patterns and corporate learning (Coopey 1995 1978 Hardy and Clegg 1996 6335 Kotter 1979 939).Increased attention to power (even if the term itself is not used) is implicit in the corporate communitys recent encouragement of internal open expression of objections to existing policies and of open competition between units of the company and between its members. Bringing these universal underlying conditions to the surface may be inevitable, giv en how much more variegated todays large-scale companies are from those in the past, not just in technology, product lines, and personnel but above all in the great diversity of markets and cultures in which they now operate.The less homogeneous the international firm becomes, the more difficult it will be to mask the fact that corporate life, like political life, involves a good deal of organizational and individual struggle over power. Power Linkages and Networks Because conflict and power struggle in public-sector organizations are both internal and external, their managers are impelled to search the environment for opportunities to form alliances. sometimes such alliances are of the Iron Triangle variety, but they are certainly not limited to this form. The idea is to create structural linkages that will improve ones chances of governing.As public policies become more salient for the firm, the firm too, will experience increased need to expand its own networks beyond those that already exist in the marketplace. Linkages with public bodies, for example, cannot be optimized (as once may have been the case) through the use of consultants and lobbyists. Structures and capabilities consonant with the organization of direct networks come to replace or supplement these older approaches. Multinational corporations that operate abroad, where public policies represent new risks for the firm as well as new opportunities as well, have often travel in exactly this networking direction.One indicator of this change is the proliferation not just of equity joint ventures (as opposed to the once-dominant fetich of the wholly owned subsidiary) but also all manner of other interfirm alliance, designed to optimize, in abroad local markets, the use of firms and their managers who have extensive experience there. In the case of U. S. companies, this type of change was also spurred by the passage of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act a generation ago. At home, one immediate co nsequence of this legislation was a sharp increase in the number of in-house attorneys employed by American firms.Overseas, it led to a much more intense search for the ways and means of finding arrangements that can somehow enable overseas U. S. firms to engage in corporate behavior that was unexceptional abroad but suspect or even outright unacceptable at home. The globalization of enterprise, the growth of networks in which the firm becomes involved at home and abroad, also brings about a considerable extension of learning methods and horizons, if not a new type of organizational learning in the private sector. The international firm becomes more sensitized to power configurations and power equilibria.The search is broadened as well as intensified in order to identify aspects of the environment that might impinge on corporate success. The quality of intelligence relevant to business operations at home and abroad is improved, as is the knowledge about the location and means of acc ess to points in the decision-making process that relate to public policies affecting the foreign investor. A keen sense that each environment has its unique aspects as well as dimensions that are general to any environment impels the firm to sharpen its analytical instruments and thereby try to improve its learning.Efforts to create a total quality system come to include not just the production, distribution, and servicing of a firms products but also the firms ability to recognize power and power struggles for what they are and to attune its learning methods to profit from this new capability. Types of Power Distributions and Equilibria Although power equilibria are never permanent, they tend to last for a long time. The reform of governmental bodies tends to be greatly resisted because, even when reforms are relatively mild, they threaten existing equilibria (Seidman 1977).As a rule, unless quick and deep change is the goal, it is better for an organization (inside or outside the public/political sphere) to learn how to operate within an existing equilibrium than to make efforts to change it. Indeed, it is almost axiomatic that, where a radical departure in public policy is intended, creating a new organization is far preferable to seeking achievement of these new goals through the existing system (Levin and Sanger 1994 1723).Events of this kind, though rare, provide highly fluid opportunities to achieve first-mover advantages as new networks and a new equilibrium are established. In this regard, it makes a difference whether the overall configuration of the political system is monocratic or pluralist, unitary or federal, highly change or characterized by broad delegation or devolution of powers. That is, power equilibria at the microlevels will be influenced in no small measure by the configuration of the larger system in which these equilibria are embedded.Pluralism Pluralist systems tend to maximize not only the number of individuals and organizations able to intervene in the policy-making and policy implementation processes but also the number of channels through which the interventions occur. Pluralism implies minute and fragmented representation of interests. The underlying assumption is that equality of opportunity, central to democratic theory, should also apply to the policy-making process. It will obviously make a difference which groups prevail in these efforts to exercise influence.It is equally important whether and what kinds of groups can bring some order to the process by aggregating a number of small groups under a single organizational umbrella. Pluralism also invites much debate. In theory, when consensus is achieved, it is expected to be very strong, precisely because of widespread opportunities that interested parties have for being consulted and hearing the views of others. over again in theory, this system of broad company should also optimize the discovery both of best solutions and of innovative ideas abou t public policies and how best to achieve them.It is behind such policies, according to pluralist democratic theory, that one can expect the strongest collective effort to emerge. And given all of these assumptions, consensual policies are likely to be well administered and widely accepted as long as they achieve expected aims. Within this rich mosaic of interactive participation, organizational learning is presumably optimized, as are the efficacious making and implementation of public policies. There are also negative sides to pluralism, and they are well known to organizational theorists.A plethora of communication channels easily debaucheds into information overload. This overload in turn can lead to never-ending debates that whirl up in stalemates or paralysis. There may be too much talk, too many options raised, and little inclination, or indeed ability, to reach closure. An even more notable objection to this mode of decision-making is the raised probability that it will produce only lowest-common-denominator outcomes. The need to balance competing forces and to find acceptable compromises implies that only in extreme emergencies can pluralist systems adopt radical measures.Pluralism and the forceful, timely management of issues do not sit easily side by side. Hence, it seems valid to presume that such systems will not work well within a corporate structure that, almost by definition, is expected to be hierarchical and unitary (Hardy and Clegg 1996 6226). Monocratic and Unitary Systems Monocratic and unitary systems are highly concentrate. If they permit a broad representation of interests, it is likely to be within a framework that is much more disciplined than that of pluralist systems.Monocratic and unitary systems are able to act even when broad consensus may be wanting or impossible to bring about. Participation from the ground up, so to speak, is not so loose or permissive as to actually tie the hands of or paralyze those at the center. Comp ared to pluralist systems, monocratic arrangements tend to be less democratic (not to be confused with undemocratic). They may involve broad, well-articulated participation in policy-making and implementation, but within limits.They tend to be more illiberal of inputs that are judged to be dysfunctional. They are immensely more suspicious of interventions in the formal decision-making and policy implementation process by groups and organizations that are not official, or not officially approved by the government. The tensions between pluralistic/democratic and unitary/monocratic arrangements are not unlike those found within corporations that move in the direction of say-so of those located toward the bottom of the pyramidal hierarchy.As I have suggested, this pyramid is not just one of positions and authority but also of command and control. That is, as long as the pyramid remains a pyramid, even slightly, it is a power arrangement governed by rules that, with rare exceptions, are themselves the outcome of a power struggle. Serious efforts to empower persons who have not had very much power, or who through empowerment will come to exercise more of it than in the past, clearly imply a widening and intensify of participation in decision-making both in the making of corporate policies and in their implementation.It is no wonder that changes of this kind, as well as those designed to bring stakeholders meaningfully into such processes, are fraught with complications and that they usually degenerate into not much more than lip-service platitudes (Coopey 1995). Monocratic and unitary political systems, such as those typically found in Europe and elsewhere outside the United States (and to some extent outside Great Britain), accord very high status to the state writ large. Those who manage the state are more inclined to redirect, minimize, and, if necessary, tip over interference from civil society when this interference threatens to paralyze government.Reasons of state, as the justification is often called, will lead to closure of debate and then to public action, presumably in favor of the community as a whole. In monocratic systems, popular sovereignty and broad participation by the masses or by organized groups will not be permitted to place the state and its overriding welfare at risk. This attitude is similar to the posture of senior corporate managers who are scarcely about to tolerate modes of empowerment or participation that might cast serious doubt on the companys mission, the rationality of its basic long strategy, or the companys very survival.Nevertheless, in the corporate sphere, as in the sphere of the state, the powers available to managers must be and often are used to end an aura of legitimacy not just to existing rules and policies but also to the outcomes that derive from them (Hardy and Clegg 1996 630). Federalism Federalism adds another facet to this discussion. As a political concept that stands in opposition to that of unitary structures, federalism implies a division of power on the basis of territory.A much-touted advantage of federalism is that it permits the bringing together, under one central authority, of territorial units that differ quite markedly from each other in many ways. This would include, say, the size of their population or territory their racial or linguistic make up and a wide range of social, economic, and even political conditions. Federal systems represent ways of organizing and managing diversity. In the country of politics, experience has shown that these systems are therefore much more viable means of managing large nations than are highly centralized unitary systems.In fact, most of these nations are of the federal, not the unitary, varietyeven the Soviet Union and the Peoples Republic of China in their so-called totalitarian heyday. Federalism also maximizes the amount of experimentation (with different laws, institutions, electoral arrangements, administrative or ganizations, and the like) that can take place under a common political roof. This umbrella-like structure permits, indeed encourages, the search for best practice in institutional form and relationships and in policy-making and implementation. This lark of federalism encourages, permits, and, indeed encourages self-conscious learning.In the United States, for example, there are formal organizations designed to provide the individual states and major cities with information about the potentially innovative or effective approaches that each may be taking to, organizational procedures or public policy. Similar information-sharing institutions also exist at the international level. This institutionalized learning is designed in the broadest sense to raise the quality and lower the cost of governmental services. In a federal setting the political center shares a number of powers with other territorial units. Except in estricted areas, it cannot pretend to be the exclusive holder or ex erciser of power and authority. Even where in formal terms the political centers authority may be exclusive and where policies are expected to be uniformly administered throughout the systems territories and subunits, considerable local variation must be permitted. Unitary systems, by contrast, permit much less flexibility of this type. The central authority within such systems exercises nearly exclusive authority to make system-wide policies, and it is also expected that these policies will be uniformly administered everywhere.Any disagreement from centrally established policies, indeed any policy-making within subnational units, proceeds only with some sort of authorization by the center. As often said in France, if one wishes to know exactly what children might be doing at a certain hour of any school day, it is sufficient to consult the manual(a) issued by the appropriate ministry in Paris. The unitary form is highly analogous to the world-wide business firm, including firms o rganized by product group or division, in which authority and control are concentrated in a single, central organization.The preceding, post-war development of the multinational corporation, at least in the United States, proceeded for the most part on the basis of this model. It was thought that the revolutions in jet travel and electronics made such centralized control both desirable and feasible. That is, these changes in the speed and facility of travel and communication were said to make possible the global extension of the so-called Sloan model of the corporation, a model that had worked so well within the United States.Feedback and Learning No matter whether the basic structure is pluralistic or monocratic, federal or unitary, the need for feedback from which the center can presumably learn is universal. Federal systems, because they produce many streams of information, may be more open but less efficient than unitary systems. Unitary systems, although in theory narrower and easier to control than federal systems are in terms of information-producing channels, are at high risk of having information delayed, distorted, or misdirected.It is apparent, however, that the center often deludes itself into believing that, with a highly disciplined and centralized organizational weapon at its disposal (like the communist party under Stalin in the USSR or the Chinese Communist party under Mao), it can both learn and control what transpires at the periphery (Hough 1969). The fallacious assumption in this instance is that a centralized and highly disciplined organizational instrument, such as the Communist party, can prevail irrespective of whether the overall system is of the federal or unitary configuration.Pluralism and Federalism in the Firm? A pluralist and federal model of the command ill fits the generally held image of the firm and of other private-sector organizations. Decision-making of the kind represented by the typical firm can scarcely follow a plur alist model to the letter, at least not without a rethinking of a great many well-established notions of what a world-scale company should be and how it should be run. Within the firm great violence is placed on clear lines of authority, both horizontal and vertical.The global firm still tries to instill a single corporate culture so that the hierarchy of values, the operational norms, and the modus operandi will be essentially the same wherever its branches and units may be located. This model leaves little room for pluralist inputs and local diversity. Pluralist democracies and federal systems thrive (most of the time) on their multicultural dimensions. Rather than eliminate diversity, it is honored and encouraged. In the corporate world, much of what is claimed about decentralization, planning from the bottom up, and individual empowerment often is spurious.Senior managers in the corporate world are rarely able or inclined to practice the decentralization or the broad and deep p articipation that they may preach. much often than not they use the considerable powers at their disposal not to encourage debate that leads to bear but rather to mobilize consent itself (Hardy and Clegg 1996 626). In the public/political sector, a key test of how seriously the center wishes to encourage diversity and favor empowerment lies in the practice of devolution, as opposed to decentralization.Devolution, typically practiced on a territorial basis, substantially reduces the powers of the center over the periphery, sometimes drastically. The strongest indicator of this reduction is the empowerment of the periphery not only to make policies but also to tax income or otherwise raise capital in connection with these policies. Such transfers, in turn, encourage high levels of competition between the subnational units of federal systems, sometimes creating very difficult problems at the center.Devolution increases pluralism. When hierarchy is replaced by something compose of ra ther free-acting units, managers need to develop skills that are germane to these changed circumstances. It is one thing when a persons position makes it possible to mobilize consent and conforming behavior it is quite another story when both of these things must be generated within the context of a relatively open, participatory, and fluid system of reaching consensus on what should be done and how best to do it.It is possible that the globalization of enterprise will force an increase in genuinely federal arrangements on the firm, a shift that would certainly imply moving aside from a strict unitary, hierarchical model and award one that is genuinely more participatory, even if more difficult to manage. Charles Handy (1996) stated that such a change may be taking place (pp. 3356), although even he suggested that the application of federal principles to the corporate world will, perhaps inevitably, be sapless (pp. 10912).The creation of similar federal structures, even ones remai ning distant from devolution, requires a new look at many of the most canonical ideas about how best to organize and manage the profit-seeking enterprise. On close inspection, the sometimes spectacular downsizing and other changes in corporate structures since about 1990 do not appear to have brought about radical operational changes in hierarchical structure. In both the public and the private sectors, centralized control of organizations dies hard.Nevertheless, the federal thrust in many of todays global firms should not be underestimated. In the truly global firm, where multinationality is not just a label, traditional arrangements for strategic plans, corporate finance, and capital budgetingwhich are still basically monocratic and unitary in naturewill gradually be revised. It is conduct to think, as so many corporate managers still do, that the continuing electronic and information technology revolutions will permit efficient global control from a single, geographically dis